12th Standard Geography NCERT - India, people, Economy Summary

Introduction

Broad Stages and Thrust of Human Geography

Early Colonial period - Exploration and description approach
1. Imperial and trade interest
2. Discovery and exploration of new area
3. Encyclopedic description of the area
4. Formed an important aspect of the geographer's account.
Later Colonial period (Regional analysis)
1. Elaborate description of all aspects of a region
2. all the regions were part of a whole
3. understanding the parts in totality would lead to an understanding of the whole

POPULATION Distribution, Density, Growth Composition

India second most populous country after China – 1.25 Bn
Distribution of Population

UP highest population followed by MH, BH, WB.
MH, BH, WB, AP, TN, MP , RJ, KN and GJ account for about 76 % of the total pop
J & K (1.04%), Aru Pradesh (0.11%), UK (0.84%) in spite having large geographical area
uneven spatial distribution due to
1. physical (climate, terrain, availability of water)
  1. North Indian Plains, deltas and Coastal Plains have higher proportion
    1. Rajasthan- dev of irri
    2. Jharkhand- availability of mineral & energy resources
    3. Peninsular States- dev of transport network have resulted in moderate to high concentration of pop in areas which were previously very thinly populated.
2. socio-economic
3. historical factors
Density of Population

persons per unit area
density of pop (2011) - 382 persons/sqkm (117 persons/sq km in 1951 to 382 persons/sqkm in 2011)
17 persons per sq km in Arunachal Pradesh to 11,320 persons in the National Capital Territory of Delhi
Growth of Population

Two components - natural and induced
natural growth - assessing the crude birth and death rates
induced Gr - volume of inward and outward movement of people in any given area
annual gr rate of India's population is 1.64 per cent (2011).
Population Doubling Time - time taken by any population to double itself at its current annual growth rate.
last one century - four distinct phases of growth
Phase I (1901-1921)

Prd of stagnant /stationary phase of Gr (Coz Gr rate was very low even recording a -ve Gr rate during 1911-1921)
BR and DR were high keeping the rate of increase low
Poor health and medical services, illiteracy of people, inefficient distribution system of food and basic necessities responsible for high BR & DR
Phase II (1921-1951)

period of steady Pop Gr
improvement in health and sanitation throughout the country brought down the mortality rate
Better transport and communication system improved distribution system.
BR remained high in this Prd leading to higher Gr rate than previous phase (impressive at the backdrop of Great Economic Depression, 1920s and WW II)
Phase III (1951-1981)

period of pop explosion
caused by a rapid fall in mortality rate but high fertility rate of pop
avg annual Gr rate was as high as 2.2%.
In this Prd- dev activities were introduced through centralised planning process and eco started showing up ensuring the improvement of living condition of people
increased international migration bringing in Tibetans, Bangladeshis, Nepalies, Pak contributed to the high Gr rate.
Phase IV (post 1981 till present)

Gr rate - remained high but has started slowing down gradually
downward trend of crude birth rate is held responsible for such a pop Gr
affected by an increase in mean age at marriage, improved quality of life particularly edu of females
World Development Report that pop of India will touch 1,350 million by 2025.
Regional Variation in Population Growth

States like KL, KN, TN, AP, Odisha, Puducherry, Goa show a low rate of Gr not exceeding 20 % over the decade. Kerala registered lowest Gr rate -9.4 (lowest in the country)
continuous belt of states from W to E in the NW, N, and N-central parts of the country has relatively high Gr rate than S states comprising GJ, MH, RJ, Punjab, HY, UP, UK, MP, Sikkim, Assam, WB, BH, CG, and Jharkhand, Gr rate on avg remained 20-25 %
adolescents i.e., up to the age group of 10-19 years is about 20.9 per cent (2011)( youthful pop having high potentials)
National Youth Policy 2003 -overall development of our large youth and adolescent population, reinforcing the qualities of patriotism and responsible citizenship.

Population Composition
Rural – Urban Composition

68.8 % of pop lives in village (2011).
India has 640,867 villages (Census 2011) out of which 597,608 (93.2 per cent) are inhabited villages
Bihar and Sikkim have very high percentage of rural population
Goa and Maharashtra have only little over half of their total population residing in villages
Union Territories, on the other hand, have smaller proportion of rural population except Dadra and Nagar Haveli (53.38 per cent).
urban population - 31.16 per cent but it is showing a much faster rate of growth over the decades due to enhanced eco dev and improvement in health and hygienic conditions.
almost in all states & UTs, - considerable increase of urban population- indicates both development of urban areas in terms of socio-economic conditions and increased rate of rural-urban migration.
Linguistic Composition

According to Grierson (Linguistic Survey of India, 1903 – 1928) there were 179 languages and as many as 544 dialects in country.
Modern India- 22 scheduled languages and a number of non-scheduled languages.
Linguistic Classification
major Indian languages belong to four language families, which have their sub-families and branches or groups
Religious Composition

One of most dominant forces affecting cultural and political life of most of Indians.
Hindus are distributed as a major group in many states (ranging from 70 - 90 % and above)
Muslims, largest religious minority, are concentrated in J & K, certain districts of WB and KL, UP , Delhi and i Lakshadweep. They form majority in Kashmir valley and Lakshadweep.
Christian pop is distributed mostly in rural areas of country. The main concentration is observed along the W coast around Goa, KL and also in the hill states of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Chotanagpur area and Hills of Manipur
Sikhs are mostly concentrated in relatively small area of the country, particularly in the states of Punjab, Haryana and Delhi.
Jains and Buddhists,smallest religious groups in India - only in selected areas of the country. Jains have major concentration in urban areas of RJ, GJ and MH, while Buddhists are concentrated mostly in MH. other areas of Buddhist majority are Sikkim, Aru Pradesh, Ladakh in J & K, Tripura, and Lahul and Spiti in HP
Composition of Working Population

population of India according to their economic status is divided into three groups
1. main workers
2. marginal workers
3. non-workers
workers (both main and marginal) is only 39.8 (2011) leaving a vast majority of about 60 per cent as non-workers (indicates an economic status in which there is a larger proportion of dependent population)
In context of country like India, work participation rate tends to be higher in the areas of lower levels of eco dev since no of manual workers are needed to perform subsistence or near subsistence eco activities.
large proportion of primary sector workers compared to secondary and tertiary sectors
54.6 per cent of total working population are cultivators and agricultural labourers, 3.8% of workers are engaged in household industries and 41.6 % are other workers including non-household industries, trade, commerce, construction and repair and other services
male workers out-number female workers in all the three sectors
number of female workers is relatively high in primary sector
proportion of workers in agri sector in India has shown a decline over the last few decades (58.2% in 2001 to 54.6% in 2011)
participation rate in secondary and tertiary sector has registered an increase
States like HP and Nagaland have very large shares of cultivators.
BH, AP, CG, Odisha, JK, WB and MP have higher proportion of agricultural labourers
Delhi, Chandigarh and Puducherry have a very large proportion of workers being engaged in other services
MIGRATION Types, Causes and Consequences
1. Bhilai Steel Plant, Chhattisgarh

Indian Diaspora
First wave
In colonial period (Br period) millions of indentured labourers were sent to work as plantation workers

by British from UP, BH to Mauritius, Caribbean islands (Trinidad, Tobago and Guyana), Fiji and South Africa;
by French to Reunion Island, Guadeloupe, Martinique and Surinam
Dutch and by Portuguese from Goa, Daman, Diu to Angola, Mozambique.
All such migrations were covered under the time-bound contract known as Girmit Act (Indian Emigration Act). However, the living conditions of these indentured labourers were not better than the slaves.
Second wave

migrants ventured out into neighbouring countries in recent times as professionals, artisans, traders and factory workers, in search of economic opportunities to Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei and African countries, etc. and the trend still continues.
There was a steady outflow of India's semi-skilled and skilled labour in the wake of the oil boom in West Asia in the 1970s.
There was also some outflow of entrepreneurs, storeowners, professionals, businessmen to Western Countries.
Third wave

Comprising professionals like doctors, engineers (1960s onwards), software engineers, management consultants, financial experts, media persons (1980s onwards), and others migrated to countries such as USA, Canada, UK, Australia, New Zealand and Germany, etc.
These professional enjoy the distinction of being one of highly educated, the highest earning and prospering groups.
After liberalisation, in 90s education and knowledge–based Indian emigration has made Indian Diaspora one of the most powerful Diasporas in the world.

Migration

migration was recorded beginning from the first Census of India conducted in 1881 (This data were recorded on the basis of place of birth)
1961 Census brought in two additional components-
1. village or town
2. duration of residence (if born elsewhere)
in 1971, additional information on
1. place of last residence
2. duration of stay at the place of enumeration were incorporated
1981 Census reasons for migration were incorporated and modified in consecutive Censuses.
In the Census of India migration is enumerated on two bases :
1. place of birth, if the place of birth is different from the place of enumeration (known as life-time migrant) 30 per cent
2. place of residence, if the place of last residence is different from the place of enumeration (known as migrant by place of last residence). 31 per cent

Streams of Migration
1. Internal migration (within the country)
rural to rural (R-R)
rural to urban (R-U)
urban to urban (U-U)
urban to rural (U-R)

females predominate the streams of short distance rural to rural migration in both types (Inter & Intra state) of migration
men predominate rural to urban stream of inter-state migration due to eco reasons.
International migration (out of the country and into the country from other countries)

India also experiences immigration from and emigration to neighbouring countries
5 million person have migrated to India from other countries. (96 per cent came from Bangladesh (3.0 million) , Pakistan (0.9 million), Nepal (0.5 million), 0.16 million refugees from Tibet, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, and Myanmar)
emigration from India -- there are around 20 million people of Indian Diaspora, spread across 110 countries
Spatial Variation in Migration

states like MH, Delhi, GJ and HY attract migrants from other states such as UP, BH, etc.
MH occupied first place in the list with 2.3 million net in-migrants, followed by Delhi, GJ, HY
UP (-2.6 million) and BH(-1.7 million) had the largest no of net out-migrants from state.
Among the urban agglomeration (UA), Greater Mumbai received higher no of in migrants.
Causes of Migration

People, generally are emotionally attached to their place of birth. But millions of people leave their places of birth and residence
reasons two broad categories :
1. push factor cause people to leave their place of residence or origin
  1. In India people migrate from rural to urban areas mainly due to poverty, high population pressure on the land, lack of basic infrastructural facilities like health care, education, etc
  2. natural disasters such as, flood, drought, cyclonic storms, earthquake tsunami, wars and local conflicts also give extra push to migrate
2. pull factors attract people from different places
  1. better opportunities, availability of regular work and relatively higher wages. Better opportunities for education, better health facilities and sources of entertainment
work and employment have remained the main cause for male migration (38 per cent) while it is only 3% for females. Contrary to this, about 65 % of females move out from their parental houses following their marriage
Consequences of Migration

Migration is a response to the uneven distribution of opportunities over space. People tend to move from place of low opportunity and low safety to the place of higher opportunity and better safety.
This creates benefits and problems for areas, people migrate from and migrate to.
Consequences can be observed in economic, social, cultural, political and demographic terms
Economic Consequences

benefit for the source region is the remittance sent by migrants
Remittances from the international migrants are one of major sources of foreign exchange. In 2002, India received US$ 11 billion as remittances from international migrants.
PJ, KL and TN receive very significant amount
Remittances are mainly used for food, repayment of debts, treatment, marriages, children's education, agricultural inputs, construction of houses, etc.
Dev of slums in industrially developed states such as MH, GJ, KN, TN and Delhi is a negative consequence of unregulated migration within country
Demographic Consequences

leads to redistribution of pop within country
Age and skill selective out migration from rural area have adverse effect on rural demographic structure
High out migration from UK, RJ, MP and E-MH have brought serious imbalances in age and sex composition in these states. Similar imbalances are also brought in recipients states
Social Consequences

+ve
1. Migrants act as agents of social change
2. new ideas related to new tech, family planning, girl's edu, etc. get diffused from urban to rural areas through them
3. Migration leads to intermixing of people from diverse cultures
4. Evolution of composite culture and breaking through narrow considerations and widens up mental horizon of people.
-ve
1. anonymity creates social vacuum and sense of dejection among individuals.
2. Continued feeling of dejection may motivate people to fall trap to anti-social activities like crime and drug abuse.

Environmental Consequences

Overcrowding of people due to rural-urban migration has put pressure on the existing social and physical infra in urban areas (leads to unplanned Gr of urban settlement and formation of slums shanty colonies)
Due to over-exploitation of natural resources, cities are facing problem of depletion of GW, air pollution, disposal of sewage and management of solid wastes.
Others

Migration (even excluding marriage migration) affects status of women directly or indirectly.
rural areas-male selective out migration leaves their wives behind( puts extra physical as well mental pressure on women)
Migration of women either for edu or employment enhances their autonomy and role in eco but also increases their vulnerability.
If remittances are the major benefits of migration from the point of view of source region, loss of human resources particularly highly skilled people is most serious cost.
Market for advanced skills has become global market and most dynamic industrial economies are admitting and recruiting significant proportions of highly trained professionals from poor regions. Consequently, existing underdevelopment in source region gets reinforced.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
1. It is believed "Dev is freedom" which is often associated with modernisation, leisure, comfort and affluence.
2. In present context, computerisation, industrialisation, efficient transport and communication network, large edu system, advanced and modern medical facilities, safety and security of indi, etc. are considered as symbols of dev
3. Individuals, community, Govt measures its performance or levels of dev in relation to availability and access to some of these things. But, this may be partial and one-sided view of dev. It is often called western or euro-centric view of dev
4. For a postcolonial country like India, colonisation, marginalisation, social discrimination and regional disparity, etc. show the other face of dev
5. There are a few areas like the metropolitan centres and other developed enclaves that have all the modern facilities available to a small section of its population
1. Human Development in India
1. India is ranked 134 among 172 countries in terms of HDI. With composite HDI value of 0.547 India is grouped with countries showing medium human dev (UNDP 2011)
2. Lack of sensitivity to historical factors like colonisation, imperialism and neo-imperialism, socio-cultural factors like human rights violation, social discrimination on the basis of race, religion, gender and caste, social problems like crimes, terrorism, and war and political factors like nature of the state, forms of the government (democracy or dictatorship) level of empowerment are some factors that are very crucial in determining the nature of human development.
3. Using indicators selected by UNDP, Planning Commission of India also prepared Human Development Report for
4. India. It used states and the Union Territories as the units of analysis. Subsequently, each state government also started preparing the state level Human Development Reports, using districts as the units of analysis. Although, the final HDI by the Planning Commission of India has been calculated by taking the three indicators, yet, this report also discussed other indicators like economic attainment, social empowerment, social distributive justice, accessibility, hygiene and various welfare measures undertaken by the state
1. Indicators of Economic Attainments
1. Rich resource base access to these resources by all (poor, down trodden, marginalized) is key to productivity, well-being and human dev.
2. (GNP) and its per capita availability are taken as measures to assess resource base/ endowment of any country
3. developed States like Maharashtra, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and Delhi that have per capita income more than Rs. 4,000 (figure at 1980-81 prices) per year and there are a large number of poorer States like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Jammu and Kashmir, etc. which have recorded per capita income less than Rs. 2,000
4. developed states have higher per capita consumption expenditure as compared to the poorer states. It was estimated to be more than Rs. 690 per capita per month in States like Punjab, Haryana, Kerala, Maharashtra and Gujarat and below Rs. 520 per capita per month in States like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh
5. States like Odisha and Bihar which have recorded more than 40 per cent of their population living below the poverty line. The States of Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland have more than 30 per cent of their population below poverty line.
6. "Poverty is a state of deprivation. In absolute terms it reflects the inability of an individual to satisfy certain basic needs for a sustained, healthy and reasonably productive living
7. Employment rate for educated youth is 25 per cent. Jobless growth and rampant unemployment are some of the important reasons for higher incidences of poverty in India.
1. Indicators of a Healthy Life
1. Life free from illness and ailment & living a reasonably long life span are indicative of a healthy life
2. Availability of pre and post natal health care facilities in order to reduce infant mortality and post-delivery deaths among mothers, old age health care, adequate nutrition and safety of indi are some imp measures of a healthy and reasonably long life
3. India has done well in some of health indicators like decline in DR from 25.1/thousand in 1951 to 8.1/thousand in 1999 and infant mortality from 148 /thousand to 70 during same period.
4. Has increased life expectancy at birth from 37.1 years to 62.3 years for males and 36.2 to 65.3 years for females from 1951 to 1999.
5. Brought down birth rate from 40.8 to 26.1 during the same years, but it still is much higher than many developed countries.
6. India has recorded declining female sex ratio.
7. with exception of KL, child sex ratio has declined in all states and it is most alarming in dev state of HY and PJ where it is below 800 female children/thousand male children. social attitude and scientific methods of sex-determination could be reason for this
1. Indicators of Social Empowerment
1. "Development is freedom".
2. Freedom from hunger, poverty, servitude, bondage, ignorance, illiteracy and any other forms of domination is key to human dev
3. Freedom is possible only with empowerment and participation of people in exercise of their capabilities and choices in society.
4. Access to knowledge about society and environment are fundamental to freedom.
5. Literacy is beginning of access to such a world of knowledge and freedom
6. Facts
  1. Overall literacy in India is approximately 65. 4 per cent (2001) while female literacy is 54.16 per cent.
  2. Total literacy as well as female literacy is higher than national avg in most of states from south India
  3. There is state like BH which has very low (47.53 per cent) literacy and there are states like KL and Mizoram which have literacy rates of 90.92 and 88.49 %
7. percentage of literates in rural areas and among marginalised sections of our society such as females, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, agri labourers, etc. is very low

Human Development Index in India

India has been placed among countries showing medium human dev
Planning Commission calculated human dev index by taking states and union territories as unit of analysis. KL with composite index value of 0.790 is placed at top rank followed by Delhi, HP, Goa and PJ.
KL - highest value in HDI largely due to impressive performance in achieving near 100% literacy
Levels of eco dev too play significant impacts on HDI. Eco developed states like MH, TN and PJ and HY have higher value of HDI
Regional distortions and social disparities which developed during colonial period continue to play an imp role in Indian eco, polity and society So Govt of India has made concerted efforts to institutionalise balanced devt with its main focus on social distributive justice through planned dev
Population, Environment and Development

Human dev is complex concept used in social sciences (Coz for ages it was thought that dev is a substantive concept & once it is achieved it will address all socio-cultural and envi ills of society)
Dev has brought improvement in quality of life but has increased regional disparities, social inequalities, discriminations, deprivations, displacement of people, abuse of human rights and undermining human values and envi degradation
UNDP in its Human Development Report 1993, tried to amend some of implicit biases & prejudices which were entrenched in concept of dev
1. People's participation and their security were major issues
2. Emphasized on progressive democratisation and increasing empowerment of people as min conditions for human dev.
3. recognized greater constructive role of 'Civil Societies' in bringing about peace and human dev
4. civil society should work for building up opinion for reduction in military expenditure, demobilization of armed forces, transition from defence to production of basic goods and services and particularly disarmament and reduction in nuclear warheads by developed countries
5. peace and well-being are major global concerns
At the other extreme of this approach lie views expressed by Neo-Malthusians, environmentalists and radical ecologists
1. for happy & peaceful social life proper balance between pop and resources is necessary condition
2. According to them gap between resources and pop has widened after 18th century.
3. There have been marginal expansion in resources of world in last 300 years but there has been phenomenal Gr in human pop.
4. Dev has only contributed in increasing multiple uses of limited resources of world while there has been enormous increase in demand for these resources.
5. Therefore prime task before any dev activity is to maintain parity between pop and resources.
Scholar like Sir Robert Malthus was 1st one to voice his concern about growing scarcity of resources as compared to human pop
unending pursuit for control of more and more resources by powerful and use of the same for exhibiting ones prowess is prime cause of conflicts as well as apparent contradictions between pop resource and dev
Gandhi in recent times advocated harmony and balance between two. He was quite apprehensive about on-going dev, the way industrialisation has institutionalised loss of morality, spirituality, self-reliance, non-violence and mutual co-operation and environment. In his opinion, austerity for individual, trusteeship of social wealth and non-violence are the key to attain higher goals in the life of an individual as well as that of a nation
His views were also re-echoed in
1. the Club of Rome Report "Limits to Growth" (1972),
2. Schumacher's book "Small is Beautiful" (1974),
3. Brundtland Commission's Report "Our Common Future" (1987)
4. "Agenda-21 Report of the Rio Conference" (1993).
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
1. Human Settlement - cluster of dwellings of any type or size where human beings live
2. People erect houses and other structures and command some area or territory as their economic support-base.
3. process of settlement inherently involves grouping of people and apportioning of territory as their resource base
4. Settlements vary in size and type (range from a hamlet to metropolitan cities)
5. With size, eco character and social structure of settlements changes and so do its ecology and technology
6. Sparsely located small settlements are villages, specialising in agri or other primary activities. Rural settlements derive their life support/ basic eco needs from land based primary eco activities. Rural people are less mobile and therefore, social rln among them are intimate.
7. There are fewer but larger settlements - urban settlements specialising in secondary and tertiary activities. They depend on processing of raw materials and manufacturing of finished goods and a variety of services. Cities act as nodes of eco Gr, provide goods and services not only to urban dwellers but also to the people of the rural settlements in their hinterlands in return for food and raw materials. way of life is complex and fast, and social relations are formal
8. Rural and urban settlements differ in terms of social relationship, attitude and outlook.
9. functional relationship between the urban and rural settlements takes place through transport and communication network
1. Types of Rural Settlement
  1. Clustered Settlements
  2. Semi-Clustered Settlements
  3. Hamleted Settlements
  4. Dispersed Settlements
2. Urban Settlements
  1. Evolution of Towns in India
  1. Ancient Towns
  2. Medieval Towns
  3. Modern Towns
3. Urbanisation in India
  1. Classification of Towns on the basis of Population Size
1. Functional Classification of Towns

Towns and cities specialise in certain functions and they are known for some specific activities, products or services. However, each town performs a number of functions.

On the basis of dominant or specialised functions, Indian cities and towns can be broadly classified as follows:
Administrative towns and cities
Towns supporting administrative headquarters of higher order are administrative towns, such as Chandigarh, New Delhi, Bhopal, Shillong, Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar, Gandhinagar, Jaipur Chennai, etc.
Industrial towns
Industries constitute prime motive force of these cities such as Mumbai, Salem, Coimbatore, Modinagar, Jamshedpur, Hugli, Bhilai, etc
Transport Cities
They may be ports primarily engaged in export and import activities such as Kandla, Kochchi, Kozhikode, Vishakhapatnam, etc. or hubs of inland transport such as Agra, Dhulia, Mughal Sarai, Itarsi, Katni, etc.
Commercial towns
Towns and cities specialising in trade and commerce are kept in this class. Kolkata, Saharanpur, Satna, etc. are some examples.
Mining towns
These towns have developed in mineral rich areas such as Raniganj, Jharia, Digboi, Ankaleshwar, Singrauli, etc.
Garrisson Cantonment towns
These towns emerged as garrisson towns such as Ambala, Jalandhar, Mhow, Babina, Udhampur
Educational towns
Starting as centres of education, some of the towns have grown into major campus towns such as Roorki, Varanasi, Aligarh, Pilani, Allahabad etc.
Religious and cultural towns
Varanasi, Mathura, Amritsar, Madurai, Puri, Ajmer, Pushkar, Tirupati, Kurukshetra, Haridwar, Ujjain came to prominence due to their religious/cultural significance.
Tourist towns
Nainital, Mussoorie, Shimla, Pachmarhi, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Udagamandalam (Ooty), Mount Abu are some of the tourist destinations.

Transport & Communication

Road
1. 45 Lakh Km
2. 85 % of passengers
3. 70 % of freight
4. Sheh shah suri
  1. Shahi (royal) / GT road (Indus valley to sonar valley)
  2. NH 1 Delhi - Amritsar
  3. NH 2 Amritsar - Kolkata
5. Nagpur plan 1943 - Didn't materialize
6. 20 year road plan 1961
  1. NH
    1. NHAI
  2. SH
  3. MDR
  4. RR
  5. Other roads
    1. BRO
Rail
1. 1853 - Bombay - thane - 34 km
2. Largest govt undertaking in the country
3. 16 zones

International trade

India exports 2011
1. Mnfd 68
2. Crude 16
3. Agri 10
4. Ore & Minerals 4
5. Others 1
India Imports
1. 1950s & 1960s (Import substitution attempt failed)
  1. Food
  2. Capital goods
  3. Machinery & Equipment
2. 1970s
  1. Food - green revolution - Import stopped
  2. Energy crisis of 1973 - Pet price increased - Import budget increased
  3. Import of Fertilizer & Petroleum dominated
  4. Other
    1. Machines
    2. Edible oil
    3. Special steel
    4. Chemicals
Ports
1. Major - 12
  1. Central govt
  2. Handles 70 % of Indias traffic
2. Minor - 185
  1. State Govt
Airways

Geographical perspective of selected issues and problems

Pollution
1. Air
2. Water
3. Land
4. Noise
Urban waste disposal
RURAL Urban migration
Slums
Land degradation