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Origin and evolution of the earth's crust

June 30, 2021 by Bhushan Leave a Comment Last Updated June 30, 2021

Crust - Thinnest & Lightest Layer

Crust is differentiated into Continental Crust and Oceanic Crust

NoOceanic CrustContinental Crust
1BasalticAndesitic
2Denser & Heavier (3 - 3.5 )Less Dense & Lighter (2- 2.5)
3Felsic, Predominance of NFMS, High Silica content
4Thinner (1-3)KmThicker (80)Km
5FundamentalFormed from Oceans
6RecycledIndestructible
7DarkerLighter
8BasicAcidic
9SofterHarder
Continental Crust vs Oceanic Crust

Origin and evolution of the earth's crust

  • First crust - the first crust was formed was probably because of cooling off the planet from the ancient nebula.
  • Meteorite impacts - In the absence of atmosphere, the earth surface must have been overwhelmed by meteorite impacts that must have cracked the earth's crust at numerous places resulting in pressure release of the mantle, mantle turbulence, first convection cells and numerous volcanic eruptions on the surface.
  • Mafic eruptions - The eruptions must have been extremely mafic even after partial melting of the mantle rocks.
  • First oceanic crust / Basalt - These mafic eruptions must have subducted many times and recycled before the first oceanic crust. Basalt was formed.
  • First microcontinent - The subduction of these 1st ocean basalts must have created the first continental andesite. These were the first microcontinents and once formed can float and move on the surface but resist subduction.
  • Protocontinent - the microcontinents must have collided with one another fused forming a larger continent and first fold mountains must have been formed the protocontinent.
Peninsular India has numerous such micro continent which has been fused. 
The three major micro or proto continents are are 
 1. Singhbum proto continent
 2. Dharwad proto continent
 3. Aravali proto continent
These proto continents fused along Narmada-Son-Godavari river lineaments.
  • Ancient fold mountains - every time the continents collide there must have formed ancient fold mountains.
The Aravalis are the remnants of such ancient fold mountains. 
  • Earth is Unique - This process of tectonic dynamism is found on no other planet and may to some extent in Venus. Hence no other planet as the type of crust earth has and the fold mountains our earth has.
The processes in the origin and evolution of earth is not the same as the theories and processes in the origin of a earth crust. 

Filed Under: UPSC

Factors controlling landform development

June 26, 2021 by Bhushan Leave a Comment Last Updated June 26, 2021

Factors controlling landform development deals with processes and theories of exogenetic processes.

Order of relief

  1. First-order relief - Oceans and continents
  2. Second-order relief - Features on oceans and continents as a result of endogenetic processes
  3. Third-order relief - Features on oceans and continents and on second-order relief due to exogenetic processes.

Landforms are the products of many processes. Processes create and shape landforms.

Landforms and landscape are influenced by.

  1. Processes
    1. Exo - Climatic processes - decide the type and the intensity of the exogenetic process
    2. Endo - Internal heat
  2. Rock structure - the presence of folds fault joints slopes, rock composition mineral composition
  3. Relief and altitude - decide the effectiveness of the denudation process
  4. Time
  5. Biota - Man is a deciding factor

The way the factors combine and express themselves have been modelled through theories in geomorphology.

WM Davis

One of the earliest theory in landform development is WM Davis's. He is considered the father of geomorphology. His theory is called "the theory of landform evolution" or "the theory of geomorphic cycles".

Historical approach

Davisian approach was a historical approach with the objective of reconstructing the geological past of the landforms.

The historical approaches by nature will be speculative and based on certain simplifying assumptions. Davis and his historical approach were influenced by three concepts.

  1. Hutton's uniformitarianism - It is a principle in any historical study.
  2. Darwin's concept of gradual evolution - The concept of gradualism and evolutionary processes challenged the the concept of catastrophic revolutionary changes.
  3. Powell's concept of base level

Hutton's uniformitarianism

According to Hutton, "The processes that operate today with their consequences were also the processes that operated earlier and with the same consequences".

In other words, "The present is the key to the past". If we understand the processes that operate today, we can infer about the processes earlier and reason the consequences accruing them.

Charles and Lyell modification

later Charles and lyall modified the concept of uniformitarianism and and suggested that the processes that operate today also operated area but not necessarily with the same intensity or with the same degree of effect

uniformitarianism is also expressed as the processes operate as to there is no vistage of a beginning and no prospect of an end.

The influence of Darwin.

Darwin's gradualism and his concept of evolution was an alternative to catastrophism. Where he asserted things don't happen suddenly. Every event and its consequences is a part of very slow evolutionary processes with changes that operate through predictive and definite stages.

Davis while using darwinian concept of evolution asserted that time is an active factor. So division idea in the historical context is a time-dependent approach.

Davisian idea of 'cycle' as an orderly and sequential set of stages that operates gradually through time was influenced by Darwin.

Powell's concept of base level.

The base level of powell is essentially the sea level. According to Davis, Base level is the tendency and drive of the river to reach the base level that energizes the river that makes it an agent of erosion. The base level therefore is what operates the cycle of erosion of Davis.

Davis focuses on denudation and erosional processes. His model of landform evolution is based on the assumption that the base level is constant and cannot change. Namely, the cycle of erosion operates in conditions of prolonged crustal stability. Any possibility otherwise was considered as abnormal by Davis.

There are different types of base level.

  1. Global sea level / Mean sea level (MSL) - for a considerable length of time, the global sea level was considered unfluctuating. We assume a constant and constant climatic condition.
  2. Regional sea level - Sea level at countries and regions. In India, it is mean sea level at Chennai
  3. Local base level - average levels of water in the lakes into which smaller rivers drain into. The local base level is more amenable to fluctuation than the regional and global base level.
  4. Changing base level - may be related to tectonic processes or because of climatic processes.

Davisian model of Landform Evolution / cycle of erosion / Fluvial cycle of erosion

according to Davis landforms are product of structure process and stage.

structure

mineral composition presence of faults types of folds joints and cracks slope analysis relief and elevation.

  • relative rock hardness - differential erosion is due to relative rock hardness. Harder rocks higher elevation
  • Steeper slopes - can intensify erosion processes
  • high and steep elevation - Gorges
  • Soft sedimentary rocks - canyon
  • Rifting zone - preferable zones occupied by river valleys.

Process.

Stage

The following were the assumptions in Davisian Model

NoAssumptionsComments
1There exist a Flat Featureless Plain at the base level.he doesn't explain the origin and feature of this flat featureless plain
2 The flat featureless plane is subjected to rapid upliftment for a very short length of time. Thereafter he assumes a state of prolonged crystal stability with an unchanging base level-- This is the only reference that he makes for the internal endogenetic process.
3After upliftment completes erosion starts that shape the landforms into their features.-- His assumption that the erosion starts only after upliftment is over is criticized.
-- According to Davis, the main and only agent of erosion are rivers. Hence his theory is a fluvial cycle of erosion.
Assumptions in Davisian Model

Comments

much of Davis work was from the observations in the US with its humid temperate cool conditions where reverse dominate as the agents of denudation.

he considers these conditions as normal and generalizes it for the whole world. This technique of Davis is deductive reasoning which is scientific but there are always risks of oversimplification and over generalisation.

The following are the stage based changes due to cycle of erosion of the rivers

Youthful StageMature StageSenile Stage
small river at great height and the slope is steep.river is bigger.river is very large
the river is swift. The river performs the work of valley deepening/ vertical erosion.
The river is not capable of valley widening.
river is capable of both valley deepening and valley widening because of vertical cutting and also lateral cutting.
your submit living along with valley deepening.
Absolute relief producers relative relief initially increases and then starts to reduce
valley deepening slows and almost stops. Valley widening is the main process.
summit is lowered.
Both absolute relief and relative relief falling rapidly
River is very near the base level
features formed - gorge and v shaped valley.
the river cannot perform summit erosion because river cannot widen.
valley deepening and river lengthening are the two activities of the river. River lengthening is due to headward erosion. River capture occurs.
Pi rating river or beheaded river pirated river.
rectilinear profile.
The valley side profile and floor profile will become smooth and straight.
valley sides and floor concave profile. The cross section of valley side and valley floor is concave profile.
the valley floor is irregular with waterfalls rapid s.
The valley sites and valley floor are convex in profile.

In youthful stage the absolute relief is constant but the relative relief is increasing because of valley deepening.

Thalweg is longitudinal profile of the valley floor
the landscape is relatively flat with undulations with some resistant rocks scattered called monadnocks. This landscape is called as peneplain.
last stage in division cycle.
Artifical senile stage landscape will have large meandering rivers with oxbow lakes mart lake like wular lake of Jhelum.
Division model does not refer to any depositional landforms like deltas are floodplains.
Telangana peneplain.

Davis is implying that every high mountain and elevated feature will eventually become flat featureless plain as it evolves from youth towards senile stage.

The evaluation of davision theory.

  1. it is a new concept and first comprehensive model
  2. His historical approach is very innovative because he was able to bring in darwinian evolution
  3. The concept of stage and time as a factor of davision approach
  4. Slow development according to Davis is due to slope decline or down wasting. Where the slopes are seen to be the consequence of their age and stage of evolution.

Limitations

  1. this concept of Davis is not as refined as Pencks slope replacement model or king's slope retreat model.
  2. Detective reasoning concept is of gross generalisation
  3. He does not explain the role of other agents of denudation.
  4. He ignored endogenetic processes and only reference to internal process is rapid upliftment for a very short time and there after he assumes prolonged crystal stability namely the base level for Davis is unchanging. He considered to the possibility of other cycles and calls those as interruptions are partial cycles that disrupt the normal cycle of erosion
The base level changes may be positive toward the completion of cycle when the base level gets uplifted or negative when the base level positive change will shorten the cycle and the negative change will prolong the cycle. 

Negative changes in the base level that prolong the cycle mein start the second cycle of erosion. The river which was becoming old again becomes young. This is called river rejuvenation. Young youthful features will now get superimposed on the peneplain. 

Features of river rejuvenation. 
1. Entrenched valleys - incised valleys - valley within a valley.
2. River terraces - may be paired terraces or unpaired terraces. 
3. Meanders.
4. Knick point.
5. Delta. 

PENCK.

landforms are the manifestations of the exogenetic and the endogenetic processes.

Prima Rumph - To begin with, penck assumed there exist a flat featureless plain at or near the base level called prima rumph. He explains that prima rumph maybe tectonic or erosional surface.

prima rumph can go through the following 3 phases / entwicklung. But entwicklung need not follow one another sequentially through time.

Entwicklung

  • Aufsteigende (waxing) entwicklung
  • Gleimorphige (constant growth)
  • Absteigende (waning)

Aufsteigende (waxing) entwicklung.

  • landform undergoing very rapid accelerating upliftment
  • The rate of erosion is less than the upliftment rate
  • Summit erosion and valley deepening occurs
  • The rate of summit erosion is less than rate of valley deepening
  • Absolute and relative relief increasing at accelerated rate.

Gleimorphige.

  • summit erosion = valley deepening hence the relative relief remains constant but there are three sub possibilities
    • Rate of upliftment more than erosion
    • Upliftment equals rate of erosion - absolute or relative relief constant
    • Upliftment it is less than erosion - relative relief constant absolute relief decreases

Absteigende.

  • upliftment is less than erosion and almost stops
  • Summit erosion is more than valley deepening
  • Relative and absolute relief reducing
  • The land is flattening in this phase
  • The final feature in this phase is a gently sloping relative Lee flat with convexo concave profile - Boschens and Haldenhangs.

End rumph - The end rumph may have loose scattered resistant rocks called as in Inselbergs . Inselberg are not same as monadnocks. Monadnocks are senile stage feature with gentle sloping angles where are inselberg are isolated hills with vertical scarp faces. The process of insulin berg formation with its perpendicular faces can be explained according to pencks model. But it can be better explain by kings models sleep retreat and pediplanation.

graphical representation of pencks model.

Evaluation.

  1. time independent model
  2. Process theorist
  3. Accounts better for process and structures as control
  4. Rejects the idea of stage based changes
  5. Thanks model of slope development is called slope replacement which was earlier confused to be model of slope retreat. Slope retreat is a concept of l c king and not that of penck.

evaluation should be in the context of comparing with Davis.

DAVISPENCK
professiongeomorphologistgeologist
nationalityamericangerman
landform and slope / processas a geomorphologist, he was concerned more about landforms and the shape of the slope.as a geologist, he was concerned about studying the processes and the structural factors that create the landform. The landform or the slope therefore were manifestation of the processes.
Stage and time dependentphase / entwicklung
Process theorist - Therefore more comprehensive and complex.
landform evolution + time dependent changes.landform development
River - agent of erosionRiver - Agent of transportation
time is the dominant factorlandforms are the manifestations of the Exogenetic and endogenetic processes
Penck took at most care to ensure his concept did not seem to have been influenced B Davis.

Previous years questions

  • 1993:
    • Explain the factors causing rejuvenation in the landscape and describe the resultant landforms.
  • 1994:
    • Discuss the concept of the cycle of erosion and bring out clearly the difference between the views of Davis and Penck.
  • 2002:
    • Provide a critique of the 'geographical cycle' model, propounded by Davis.
  • 2005:
    • " Structure is a dominant control factor in the evolution of Landforms" Discuss with suitable examples.
  • 2008:
    • Critically examine the concept of the geomorphic cycle and discuss the views of W.M.Davis and W.Penck.
  • 2012:
    • Explain how Bosche and Haldenhang lead to the Theory of Slope Replacement.
  • 2013:
    • Differences between Normal cycle and Arid cycle of Davis.
    • What is 'Base level'? Explain the types of base level.
  • 2016:
    • "In explaining the concept of 'Pediplanation', King combined the ideas of Davis, Penck and Wood with his own." Elaborate.
  • 2016:
    • "Geological structure has a dominant control on landforms and is reflected on them."Discuss.
  • 2017:
    • "Climate, slope gradient and rock structure influence the avulsion of channels". Explain.
  • 2018:
    • "Landscape is a function of structure, process and stage." Critique the statement.

Filed Under: Geography, Geography Optionals, UPSC Tagged With: Factors controlling landform development, landform development

Security Issues PYQs

June 11, 2021 by BureaucratONE Leave a Comment Last Updated June 11, 2021

2020 – Security Questions in UPSC Mains

  1. Discuss different types of cybercrimes and measures required to be taken to fight the menace.
  2. For effective border area management, discuss the steps required to be taken to deny local support to militants and also suggest ways to manage favourable perception among locals.
  3. What are the determinants of left-wing extremism in the Eastern part of India? What strategy should the Government of India, civil administration, and security forces adopt to counter the threat in the affected areas?
  4. Analyse internal security threats and transborder crimes along Myanmar, Bangladesh and Pakistan borders including Line of Control (LoC). Also, discuss the role played by various security forces in this regard.

2019 – Security Questions in UPSC Mains

  1. The banning of 'Jamaat-e-Islami' in Jammu and Kashmir brought into focus the role of over-ground workers (OGWs) in assisting terrorist organizations. Examine the role played by OGWs in assisting terrorist organizations in insurgency-affected areas. Discuss measures to neutralize the influence of OGWs.
  2. What is the CyberDome Project? Explain how it can be useful in controlling internet crimes in India.
  3. Indian Government has recently strengthened the anti-terrorism laws by amending the unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), 1967 and the NIA act. Analyze the changes in the context of the prevailing security environment while discussing the scope and reasons for opposing the UAPA by human rights organizations.
  4. The cross-Border movement of insurgents is only one of the several security challenges facing the policing of the border in North-East India. Examine the various challenges currently emanating across the India-Myanmar border. Also, discuss the steps to counter the challenges.

2018 – Security Questions in UPSC Mains

  1. Left-Wing Extremism (LWE) is showing a downward trend, but still affects many parts of the country.
  2. Briefly explain the Government of India's approach to counter the challenges posed by LWE.
  3. Data security has assumed significant importance in the digitized world due to rising cyber-crimes. The Justice B. N. Srikrishna Committee Report addresses issues related to data security. What, in your view, are the strengths and weaknesses of the Report relating to the protection of personal data in cyberspace?
  4. India's proximity to two of the world's biggest illicit opium-growing states has enhanced her internal security concerns. Explain the linkages between drug trafficking and other illicit activities such as gunrunning, money laundering, and human trafficking. What countermeasures should be taken to prevent the same?

2017 – Security Questions in UPSC Mains

  1. Discuss the potential threats of Cyber attack and the security framework to prevent it.
  2. The north-eastern region of India has been infested with insurgency for a very long time. Analyze the major reasons for the survival of armed insurgency in this region.
  3. Mob violence is emerging as a serious law and order problem in India. By giving suitable examples, analyze the causes and consequences of such violence.
  4. The scourge of terrorism is a grave challenge to national security. What solutions do you suggest to curb this growing menace? What are the major sources of terrorist funding?

2016 – Security Questions in UPSC Mains

  1. The terms 'Hot Pursuit' and 'Surgical Strikes' are often used in connection with armed action against terrorist attacks. Discuss the strategic impact of such actions.
  2. 'Terrorism is emerging as a competitive industry over the last few decades." Analyse the above statement.
  3. Border management is a complex task due to difficult terrain and hostile relations with some countries. Elucidate the challenges and strategies for effective border management.
  4. Use of the internet and social media by non-state actors for subversive activities is a major security concern. How have these been misused in the recent past? Suggest effective guidelines to curb the above threat.

2015 – Security Questions in UPSC Mains

  1. Human rights activists constantly highlight the view that the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958 (AFSPA) is a draconian act leading to cases of human rights abuses by the security forces. What sections of AFSPA are opposed by the activists? Critically evaluate the requirement with reference to the view held by the Apex Court.
  2. Religious indoctrination via digital media has resulted in Indian youth joining ISIS. What is ISIS and its mission? How can ISIS be dangerous for the internal security of our country?
  3. The persisting drives of the government for development of large industries in backward areas have resulted in isolating the tribal population and the farmers who face multiple displacements with Malkangiri and naxalbari foci, discuss the corrective strategies needed to win the left wing extremism (LWE) doctrine affected citizens back into the mainstream of social and economic growth.
  4. Considering the threats cyberspace poses for the country, India needs a "Digital Armed Force" to prevent crimes. Critically evaluate the National Cyber Security Policy, 2013 outlining the challenges perceived in its effective implementation.

2014 – Security Questions in UPSC Mains

  1. The diverse nature of India as a multi-religious and multi-ethnic society is not immune to the impact of radicalism which has been in her neighbourhood. Discuss along with the strategies to be adopted to counter this environment.
  2. International civil aviation laws provide all countries complete and exclusive severity over the airspace above the territory. What do you understand by airspace? What are the implications of these laws on the space above this airspace? Discuss the challenges which this poses and suggests ways to contain the threat.
  3. How illegal transborder migration does pose a threat to India's security? Discuss the strategies to curb this, bring out the factors which give impetus to such migration.
  4. China and Pakistan have entered into an agreement for the development of an economic corridor. What thread does it dispose of for India's security? Critically examine.

2013 – Security Questions in UPSC Mains

  1. Money laundering poses a serious security threat to a country's economic sovereignty. What is its significance for India and what steps are required to be taken to control this menace?
  2. What are social networking sites and what security implications do these sites present?
  3. Cyberwarfare is considered by some defence analysts to be a larger threat than even Al Qaeda or terrorism. What do you understand by Cyberwarfare? Outline the cyber threats which India is vulnerable to and bring out the state of the country's preparedness to deal with the same.
  4. Article 244 of the Indian Constitution relates to the administration of schedules area and tribal areas. Analyse the impact of non-implementation of the provisions of the Fifth schedule on the growth of Left Wing extremism.
  5. How far are India's internal security challenges linked with border management particularly in view of the long porous borders with most countries of South Asia and Myanmar?

Filed Under: Defence, mains questions, security, UPSC

General Studies-III: Technology, Economic Development, Biodiversity, Environment, Security and Disaster Management

June 11, 2021 by BureaucratONE Leave a Comment Last Updated June 11, 2021

  1. Linkages between development and spread of extremism.
  2. Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security.
  3. Challenges to internal security through communication networks, the role of media and social networking sites in internal security challenges, basics of cybersecurity; money-laundering, and its prevention.
  4. Security challenges and their management in border areas - linkages of organized crime with terrorism.
  5. Various Security forces and agencies and their mandate.

Filed Under: UPSC

Coastal plains

March 31, 2021 by Bhushan Leave a Comment Last Updated April 1, 2021

Structural features.

  • coastal plains are depositional plains along the peninsular coast
  • They are younger and will have alluvium
  • Predominantly river in aluvium and less marine alluvium
Western coastEastern coast
Narrow.
broader.
short swift streams that don't carry enough sedimentsBecause bigger rivers more sedimentation
steep slope. Sediments don't accumulategentler slopes. So sediments accumulate
rivers terminate at estuariesrivers terminate at delta
favourable location for portsnot favourable for ports because Eastern coast require continuous maintenance and dredging
coastal plains - east vs west

Genesis.

  • eastern and western coastal plains are mostly composite plains.
  • composite planes have features of submergent emergent and features of neutral coastline.
  • Malabar - emergent smoother lagoons. Vembanad lagoon, ashtamudi lagoon Kollam
  • Canara Karnataka - submergent coast
  • Konkan - submergent and emergent
  • Kathiyawar - submergent and emergent
  • Coromandel - emergent lagoon pulicat lagoon
  • Andhra - submergent
  • Odisha - emergent chilika lake shot Island wheeler Island kalam Island
  • Bengal coast - evidences of river rejuvenation

Coastal Plains

  • Depositional plains along the peninsular coast
  • Younger and have alluvium (Riverine alluvium - (predominant) and Marine alluvium)
EASTERN COASTAL PLAINSWESTERN COASTAL PLAINS
WidthBroadNarrow
RiversLarge
hence more sedimentation
Short swift streams
SlopeGentle
So Sediments accumulate
Steep
Fewer sediments
PortsDeltaic deposits
Not favorable to Ports
Require continuous maintenance & Dredging
Rivers terminate @ Estuaries
Good location for ports
GenesisComposite Plains - (Submergent + Emergent + Neutral)
COROMANDEL
-Emergent
- Lagoons (Pulicat lagoon )
ANDHRA COAST

- Submergent
ODISHA COAST

- Emergent
- Chilka lake
- Shortt Island, Wheeler Island (Kalaam Island)
BENGAL COAST

- Evidence of River rejuvenation
- IMTR (Interim Missile Test Range)
Composite Plains - (Submergent + Emergent + Neutral)
MALABAR
- Emergent, Smoother
- Lagoons - Wayambanad lagoon & Kollam / Ashtamudi lagoon
KARNATAKA / CANARA
- Submergent
KONKAN
- Submergent and Emergent
KATHIAWAR
- Submergent and Emergent
Eastern & Western Coastal Plains

Filed Under: UPSC

Types and patterns of rural settlements

March 31, 2021 by Bhushan Leave a Comment Last Updated March 31, 2021

3 types - Degree of compactness

  1. Compact / Clustered
  2. Dispersed
  3. Semi - Clustered

Patterns

  1. Rectangular
  2. Circular
  3. Amorphous

Rectangular

  • Hollow
  • Grid
  • Ribbon / Strip

Circular

Reasons - compact

  • Wet Point
  • Security

Variants

  • Annual
  • Radial

Horse Shoe

  • Mallital
  • Tallital

Amorphous

Filed Under: UPSC

Functional classification of Indian cities

March 31, 2021 by Bhushan Leave a Comment Last Updated March 31, 2021

No two cities are similar but invariably they have some commonalities on which they may be grouped into categories. The earliest classification was based on the evolutionary stages of a city.

Aurosseau gave the first functional classification of cities. He classified the cities on the basis of dominant functions.

Aurosseau's functional classification of cities

  1. Administrative towns
    • Cities that perform an administrative function
    • Washington DC, Gandhinagar, Delhi, Islamabad, Brasilia
  2. Cultural cities
    • They are cultural centers
    • Varanasi Saint Petersburg Madurai Venice
  3. Recreational center
    • Like hill stations
    • Shimla, Las-Vegas
    • Beach town Goa
  4. Manufacturing center
    • Bokaro, Detroit, Pittsburgh, Birmingham, etc.
  5. Defense towns
    • Made for security reasons
    • Cantonment areas like Jabalpur, Ranikhet, Rawalpindi, Edinburgh, etc.
  6. Centers for communication
    • Mumbai, Singapore, Rotterdam, Colombo, Mugalsarai, Itarsi, Khadakpur

Aurosseau's scheme was based on subjective evaluation in depicting the nature of a city. It did not use any statistical method.

Modifications over this scheme started using statistical data such as the proportion of population employed in certain categories of function. In India, one such example of quantitative statistics-based classification was that of Ashok Mitra.

Ashok Mitra's classification of Indian cities

  • He used census data to classify the Indian cities
  • The 1971 census identified 9 categories of workers
    1. Cultivators
    2. Agricultural labor other than cultivators
    3. Workers in forestry fishing and mining
    4. workers in housing
    5. Manufacturing
    6. Construction other than housing
    7. Trade and commerce
    8. Transport communication
    9. Other services

Ashok Mitra didn't consider function 1 and 2 because they are purely agriculture function.

Manufacturing functions - Functions 3, 4, 5, and 6 were together considered as Manufacturing functions.

Forestry fisheries and mining are primary activity but mining is related to industry and so also many forestry activities.

Trade functions - Functions 7 and 8 were considered as Trade functions.

Service function - Function 9 was considered as Service function.

For every city that he studied, statistically, he tried to establish the proportion of workers in each of the above three categories.

He tries to plot the city on a triangular graph on the basis of the proportion of workers in each category of employment. Namely Services, trade, and manufacturing.

For identifying the character of the city, Ashok Mitra first draws an incircle and subdivides the incircle into three concentric zones of equal width because the graph is divided in 4 parts.

  • Zone 1 - Depict city with maximum diversification
  • Zone 2 - They are cities with moderate diversification
  • Zone 3 - Cities with function predominantly accentuated
  • Zone 4 - City with function highly accentuated

Zone 3 and Zone 4 depicts cities with specialization where some category of function is the character of the city.

Filed Under: UPSC

Classification of soils

March 31, 2021 by Bhushan Leave a Comment Last Updated March 31, 2021

With the diversity of soil forming factors and processes there are innumerable types of soils on earth. Soil classification is a technique in grouping soil based on some proper parameters so as to study soils more objectively.

Doku chiev.

He was a Russian pedologist. His was the first attempt in soil classification.

There are two ways of classification.

  1. on the basis of genesis - primary condition is climate
  2. On the basis of soil property / morphological classification

Genetic classification based on climate is more appropriate in geographical perspective because it can detail pattern of soil distribution and relate it to the climate types across the world.

If not specified in the question, the genetic scheme needs to be detailed while morphological is mentioned.

Morphological classification is more detail and more relevant in agriculture planning. It is difficult to make a world map on the basis of rock property.

Marbut scheme.

Doku Chiev gave the first scheme and was modified by Glinka. Both of them where Russians.

Marbut modified Glinkas scheme for America. Eventually he expanded it for the world soil types.

Marbut classified the soils on the basis of soil forming factors.

broadly there are three types of soils

  • zonal
  • intrazonal
  • azonal

zonal

dry and semi-arid - capillary action (Pedocal)humid and wet - leaching (Pedalfer)
chernozemspodsol
seirozemsLatosol

Podsols.

  • pedalfer soil of cool humid region
  • Represented in taiga
  • The process is podsolization.
  • Formed due to leaching in the presence of chelating agents
  • Aluminium and iron oxides are more mobile and form sesquioxides. They become thick hard iron pans.
  • Acidic greyish in colour.
  • Not the best for agriculture
  • Lumbering is the main activity

Latosols.

  • variants of laterites
  • Leaching and laterization process
  • Condition required is humid and warm
  • Good formation of laterites. Alternate wet and dry conditions - uplands monsoonal
  • Silicon is more mobile and hence leached.
  • B illuviated layer is silicon enriched
  • Soil is red in colour because of iron and aluminium oxides.
  • Aluminium is acidic in nature.

chernozems

seirozems

Morphological classification of soil.

  • USDA
  • On the basis soil properties
  • Properties nutrients texture soil profile soil horizons PH value colour
  • This is a very detailed scheme
  • It has application in agriculture planning

This classification is not the best scheme in understanding the spatial pattern of soil distribution.

  1. Enti
  2. Insepti
  3. Histo
  4. Aridi
  5. Molli
  6. Verti
  7. Alfi
  8. Lato ??

Filed Under: UPSC

5. Typology of agricultural regions/Agricultural regions of the world

March 30, 2021 by Bhushan Leave a Comment Last Updated March 30, 2021

Agricultural regions of the world

There are many ways of classifying and regionalizing agriculture. Some of the earliest schemes of agricultural crops 🌾 are those based on agricultural productivity and crop combinations. Such regionalization for crop combination only reflects the type of land used but doesn't represent an agricultural system in all its diversity and components. Agriculture practiced is rarely the reflection of physical factors alone. Apart from the soil, rainfall🌧️, temperature🌡️, and slope consideration, the more important deciding factors are the technology, infrastructure, type of inputs, and techniques of farming.

Agricultural regions of the world
Agricultural regions of the world

Derwent Whittlesey's Classification

Whittlesey, therefore, tried to suggest a more holistic basis of Agricultural regionalization accounting for the entire range of factors that can influence agriculture.

The following are 5 variables that he considered.

  1. Choice of Crops🌾
  2. Crop 🌾 and Livestock 🐖combination
  3. Degree of Mechanization 🚜
  4. Degree of Commercialization 💰
  5. Infrastructure and Buildings 🏢

Based on the above five factors,Derwent Whittlesey identified the following 13 agriculture types.

The 13 agriculture types / Agricultural regions of the world

  1. Nomadic herding
  2. Livestock ranching. 🤠
  3. Shifting agriculture
  4. Rudimentary sedentary agriculture
  5. Intensive Subsistence farming with paddy 🍚 dominance
  6. Subsistence farming without Paddy dominance (millets maize🌽)
  7. Commercial grain farming wheat 🌾.
  8. Commercial mixed farming (crops 🌾+ livestock 🐖)
  9. Subsistence mixed farming. (crops 🌾+ livestock 🐖)
  10. Mediterranean agriculture. 🍇🍸
  11. Plantation agriculture. 🌴
  12. Commercial dairy farming 🥛🐮🐄
  13. Specialized horticulture. 🥕🥔🥒🍠🍆🍅🍄🌽

Nomadic herding

Nomadic pastoralists. They keep cattle 🐄 and migrate with their livestock across seasons. This is a feature of dryland and Semi-arid regions. It is practiced in Central Asia Uzbek horseman Afghan 🏇 horsemen. Africa cattle 🐄 Masai Tribes of Africa largest tribe. Practised in deserts🏜️. sheep🐑 and nomadism are around the oasis🏝️ region. Transhumance gaddi of Himachal Pradesh sheep 🐑 up and goat 🐐 and bakarwals of Kashmir cattle 🐄

  • a farm of animal grazing on natural pasturage
  • constant or seasonal migration of the nomads
  • confined to rather sparsely populated parts of the world
  • the natural vegetation is mainly grass.
  • concentrated in Saharan Africa (Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, Sudan, Libya, Algeria ).
  • The southwestern central parts of Asia
  • parts of Scandinavian countries (Norway, Sweden, Finland ) northern Canada.
  • Food Needs of the family
  • declining agri system
  • the continued movement of people with their livestock in search of forage for the animals.
  • The Bedouin of Saudi Arabia and taurag of the Sahara in the desert semi desert areas
  • Seasonal pattern of movement.
  • Many kinds of animals grazed.
  • Transhumance.

Livestock ranching. 🤠

  • permanent ranches where large numbers of cattle sheep goat horses are kept.
  • the Americans, Australia, the Republic of South Africa, Brazil Argentina, Peru, New Zealand
  • livestock ranchers have fixed place of residence and operate as individuals
  • The vegetation cover is continuous.
  • There is little or no migration.
  • Ranches one scientifically managed.
  • The animals are rose for sale.

Shifting agriculture

  •   slash and burn agriculture
  • primitive form agriculture
  • tropical rainforests also tropical lowlands hills in the center America, Africa, and Southeast Asia, Indonesia.
  • bush fallow agriculture
  • ladang in Indonesia,
  • Milpa in central America,
  • (grow only for his family in this agriculture systems. small surplus are exchanged on bartered sold for cash
  • rotation of fields rather than rotation of crops.
  • hill tracts of north-east India 86 percent of the people living on hill - shifting cultivation.
  •   food grains-rice maize-millet- jobs-beans-vegetables- soybean.

Rudimentary sedentary agriculture

  • Mostly confined to the tropical lands of Central & South America, Africa, South-East Asia.
  • Crop rotation occurs
  • Potatoes, Sweet potatoes, Maize, Sorghum, Banana etc are grown.

Intensive Subsistence farming with paddy 🍚 dominance

  • confined to the tropical monsoon lands of Asia.
  • China. Japan, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Srilanka, Malaysia, Philippines etc.
  • Farming is intensive
  • double or triple cropping - several crops are grown on the same land during the course of a year.
  • dry season - other food or cash crop such as sugar tobacco on oil seeds or the fiber crop jute.   
  • Asian farmer - greater yields per acre - hybrid rice.

Subsistence farming without Paddy dominance (millets maize🌽)

  • interior India and North-East China.
  • The land is intensively used & worked primarily by human power.
  • Farming in these regions suffers from frequent crop failures & famines.
  • Wheat, Soya bean, Barley, crops are grown.

Plantation agriculture. 🌴

  • estates or plantation
  • tropical agriculture
  • originally to the British settlements in America
  • then in north America , west India, south-east Asia which was cultivated mainly by Negro or other colored labor.
  • specialized production of one tropical or subtropical crop raised for market
  • Climatic hazards' strong winds, topography, drainage soil vegetation condition prevent the establishment of plantation
  • problems
    • Accessibility
    • connectivity
    • availability of labor
    • difficulties of clearing vegetation (tropics)
    • pests, weeds,
    • rapid deterioration of the tropical soil ,
    • soil erosion
  • plantation generally large
  • found mainly in the thinly populated areas.
  • The size of farm varies from 40 hectares in Malaya India, too 60000 hectares in Liberia. I
  • large disciplined unskilled labor force is necessary.
  • plantation crops are rubber, oil palm, cotton, copra,
  • beverages like coffee, tea, coco,
  • fruits like pineapples, bananas,
  • sugar-cane jute.
  • Asia is the leading producer of Jute (96%), rubber (90%) tea (87%) coconut (37%) tobacco (46%) of the total world production Asia share in the production of sugarcane is 39% that of banana , oil palm is 25%                 
  • Estate farming.
  • Foreign ownership local labor.
  • estates is scientifically managed.

Mediterranean agriculture. 🍇🍸

  • Mediterranean region
  • where there is winter rain and summer drought
  • confined to the coastal areas of the Mediterranean sea in Europe, Asia Minor, North African coastal strip.
  • Outside the Mediterranean cost this system is found in California (USA) Central Chile the south-coast of cape province (South Africa) South-West of Western Australia.
  • also found in irrigated areas in similar latitudes.
  • been largely affected by long day summers occurrence of rains during the winter season devices for artificial irrigation during drought periods of summers.
  • Traditional Mediterranean agricultural - barely cultivation
  • vine tree crops like the grape olive, fig, small livestock herding particularly of sheep goats pigs.
  • In recent times -irrigation - expansion of crops to citrus fruits.
  • The Mediterranean - Orchard lands of the world - the heart of the world's wine industry.

Commercial grain farming wheat 🌾.

  •  specialize in growing wheat on less frequently rice or corn.
  • Great wheat belts - Australia, the plains of interior North America, the steppes of Russia, the pampas of Argentina, together the United states, Canada farmer, Soviet union.
  • extensive.
  • Big farm size
  • use of heavy machines
  • Low use of irrigation fertilizer
  •  Low production rate
  • Long distance of farm from market.
  • (iii) Wheat is the main crop; maize , Barleys, oat are another important crops.
  • The wheat production regions
    • Winter wheat belt.
    • Spring wheat belt.

Commercial mixed farming (crops 🌾+ livestock 🐖)

  • throughout Europe Rhineland in the West through central Europe to Russia.
  • found in north America pampas in Argentina, Southeast Australia, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand.
  • farms produce both  crops livestock integrated.
  • Mixed farms - high expenditure on machinery
  • extensive use of machinery
  • fertilizers also by the skill experts
  • Urbanized industrialized societies .
  • a number of crops are grown.
  • cereals dominate
  • A large portion of cereals is fed to animals
  • Capital input high

Subsistence mixed farming. (crops 🌾+ livestock 🐖)

  • Northern Europe, Middle East, Mountain region of Mexico.
  • crops & livestock mainly used for own subsistence.
  • Traditional way of farming.
  •  Seeds are poor quality & animals are poorly husbanded.
  • Capital input is normally unknown.
  • Wheat, Maize, Rye, Barley etc are the main crops.
  • Sheep and Goats are the most important animal.

Commercial Dairy Farming 🥛🐄🧀🧈

  • The rearing of the cattle for milk and milk products (butter, cheese, condensed milk)
  • practiced in Europe, Northern USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Finland, France, and Switzerland.
  • 40% of agricultural income.
  •   capital intensive farming.
  • mechanical equipment like milking machines milk freezers, feeding towers, silos for the storage of fodder for winters.  
  • size of cattle varies from country to country from farm to farm depending on the size of holding.
  •  (iv) Modern method of daily farming cattle breeding herd management allow high yields of dairy products.
  • temperate latitudes Average - 3000kg of milk per year.
  • he average production of milk per cow per annum - between 2896kg in Canada to 4284kg in Japan.

Indian scenario

  • In India it is 1,200 litres of milk per year per cow
  • India is the largest producer of milk
  • value of milk is more than that of rice and wheat combined So, it is India's biggest agri-produce
  • source of income to small and landless agri-house 70 per cent of those earning their livelihood from milk are women
  • Dairying provides a source of regular income, whereas income from agriculture is seasonal About a third of rural incomes
  • Livestock is a security asset to be sold in times of crisis.
  • Challenges 
    • Indian cattle and buffaloes have among the lowest productivity.
  • Milk Cooperatives
    • Guj - AMUL
    • TN - Avin
    • KL - Milma
    • KN - Nandini
    • AP - Vijaya
    • Pondi - Pondley
    • Delhi - Mother Diary

Specialized Horticulture. 🥕🥔🥒🍠🍆🍅🍄🌽

  • vegetables, fruits, flowers
  • Mediterranean agriculture - large scale. Other regions - Specific spot
  • vineyards of Europe - most ancient districts
  • raising the maximum of crops on the minimum of acres
  • Lavish application of purchased fertilizers - high yields and quality
  • winter - greenhouses
  • in the densely populated industrial districts of north-west Europe, Britain, Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, France, Italy.
  • located where communication links to consumption centers are good.
  • intensively cultivated.
  • Soil fertilizers are done by hand labor.
  • scientifically managed to achieve optimum yields and returns.
  • Commercial fruit orchard - apples, cherries, and pears
  • Vineyards
  • The Rhine, the Loire, the Swiss lakes, and the plain of northern Hungary - Grapes Wines
  • Mendoza, San Juan of Argentina, etc. (grapes production )
  • southwestern Germany Nova Scotia, the Lower Great Lakes, the Middle Appalachians, and the Ozark (apple).
  • south Arab and Iraq for dates
  • India and South-East Asia for spices, pineapple, mango
  • Sugar beet tobacco flax and hemp cotton

Main Post - Geography Optional Syllabus

For Agricultural Regions of India - Click Here

Filed Under: Geography, Geography Optionals, UPSC Tagged With: Agricultural regions of the world, Typology of agricultural regions

6. Humanistic Geography

March 30, 2021 by Bhushan Leave a Comment Last Updated March 30, 2021

Humanistic Geography

The most extreme backlash against quantification is humanistic backlash. It was against positivism and against any form of quantification. It also rejected the objective analysis in establishing the cause-effect relationship of a phenomenon or its pattern. It believes that the reasons for any man-environmental relationship have its root in the man himself which cannot be known objectively. Please there is nothing called as objective reality or real environment and what exists are subjective perceptions that are dynamic and can never be deciphered with certainty and precision. it is there for against mental maps and the techniques it suggests are more awake and difficult to replicate with objectivity. Techniques like b e r s t h a n getting into the minds of individuals and hermeneutics technique of continuous cyclic debates in interpretations and re interpretation of an event and phenomenon.

humanistic geography developed under different schools. with the purpose of studying and appreciating all aspects of man and management relationship it was important to understand the basis in the relationship without trying to generalize the cores into a law or a model when the reasons were shot in the ideas it is called idealism. The reality acid exists is constituted in one's mind first. Angiography idealism was part in by Harish and goyal CA.

for Ralph and coke the routes in a man and environment relationship is the environment are the phenomenon the subject cognitive eggs experience with which he develops the idea the phenomenon becomes the essence that distills into an idea this was the school of phenomenology.

School of Existentialism

Before the essence of a phenomenon, there exists a man first who experiences a phenomenon that becomes the basis of an idea.

For example, for every landscape that has to be someone who can be held accountable, this is a school of existentialism in geography.

Identity - Critique of positivism

Humanistic geography and its methods, techniques, and philosophy remained a very vague school of thought. Its identity was largely a critique of positivism and never developed into an independent geographical paradigm.

Main Post - Geography Optional Syllabus.
Next Post - Welfare Geography.

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