• Skip to primary navigation
  • Skip to main content

BureaucratONE

Learn like a bureaucrat

  • Home
  • Blog
  • About & Contact
  • YouTube

Art & Culture

Language and Mother Tongue

September 12, 2020 by BureaucratONE Leave a Comment Last Updated September 12, 2020

Language could be a tool or medium of communication but the mother tongue is different. It is not just a medium of communication but also a manifestation of emotions, culture, tradition, values and more importantly, provides an identity to its speakers. Every society that used a borrowed language as its conversational language suffered from an identity crisis or took the identity of the borrowed language. All the nuances and subtilities of literature, culture and art of society are hidden in the language used in that society. Whenever a society could look beyond the instrumental value of a language, they were able to develop independent literature, art, music, dance and culture.

For e.g Tamilians takes pride in their language and refuse to promote any other language other than their mother tongue and English. This attitude resulted in the independent development of literature(Sangam literature), cinema(Kollywood), dance(Bharatanatyam), martial art(Silambam), music (Carnatic music - yes Modern Carnatic music is based on musical concepts like Swara, raga, and tala that were described in the Silappadhikaram by Ilango Adigal).

  1. 90% of Nobel Laureates (except Nobel peace prize) before 2017 studied in their mother tongue
  2. Every visiting VIP's speak in their mother tongue as a mark of self-respect
  3. The notion of English being necessary for scientific innovation is wrong as 90% of the top 40-50 countries in the World Innovation Index impart education in their mother tongue.

Imparting education in the mother tongue provides better understanding than any alien language. At the same time complex, scientific and technical terms should be simplified in Target Language to meet the modern needs of the society.

But this doesn't mean ignore the world's most important language English. English should be studied in addition to one's mother tongue. Learning English has its own utility. Most of the original literature on science is in English. Important concepts could be lost in the translation. Therefore knowing English will give easy and authentic access to 80% (Pareto optimality) of modern science and technology.

English is already a Lingua Franca of the world. Therefore it can also act as a Lingua Franca of India. Promoting English over Hindi as a lingua Franca of India resolves sentimental issues associated with the imposition of Hindi. It gets a ready political acceptance esp. by southern and northeast Indian states. It also opens up job opportunities for Indian abroad esp. in America (World's largest economy).

Filed Under: Art & Culture, Current Affairs, interview, mains questions, social issues, UPSC

Practice Questions in Art and Culture

August 10, 2020 by BureaucratONE Leave a Comment Last Updated August 10, 2020

  1. Temple architecture constitutes a significant part of India's cultural heritage, in this context throw light on the various types of temple architecture in India. (250 words)

Filed Under: Art & Culture, GS1

Temple architecture constitutes a significant part of India's cultural heritage, in this context throw light on the various types of temple architecture in India. (250 words)

August 10, 2020 by BureaucratONE Leave a Comment Last Updated August 10, 2020

Shilpa-shastra recognizes three styles and its geographical distribution in Temple Architecture. They are

  1. Nagara Style - Northern Style
  2. Dravidian Style - Southern Style
  3. Vesara Style - region between north and south

The richness in cultural heritage is reflected in the temple architecture of India. The size, material and type of construction depended on the technological sophistication and Economic power of the Empire.

Temple architecture in the north emerged and reached its climax during the Gupta period (Golden age of Indian Architecture). Gupta Architecture progressed in 5 stages which acted as a precursor to Nagara Style. 3 subschools emerged under Nagara style

  1. Odisha School -Kalinga Empire
    1. Sun Temple, Konark
    2. Jagannath Temple, Puri
    3. Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneswar
  2. Khajuraho School - Chandela Rulers
    1. Kandariya Mahadeva
    2. Lakshman Temple, Khajuraho
  3. Solanki School - Solanki rulers of Gujarat and Rajasthan
    1. Modhera Sun Temple

Features of Nagara Architecture and sub-schools

  1. Kalash
  2. Amalak
  3. Shikhara - 3 types
    1. Latina or rekha-prasad a.k.a rekhaduel in Odisha Style
    2. Phamsana
    3. Valabhi
  4. Garbagriha or Sanctum Sanctorum
  5. Garbagriha guarded by Ganga and Yamuna
  6. Mandapa or Hall a.k.a Jagmohans in Odisha School
    1. Mahamandapa
    2. Mandapa
    3. Arthamandapa
  7. Antarala - Vestibular tube connecting mandapa and garbhagriha
    1. Present in Khajuraho School
  8. Pradakshinapatha or circum-ambulatory
  9. Panchayatan Style
  10. Boundary Walls and elaborate gateways
    1. Usually absent except in Odisha Style
  11. Interior and exterior decoration
    1. Only exterior decoration in Odisha Style
    2. Both side decoration in Khajuraho Style
    3. Devoid of decoration in Solanki Style but porticos have decorative arched gateways called torans.
  12. Tanks
    1. Usually absent unlike Dravida style
    2. But step-tanks called Surya Kund in Solanki Style

Dravidian Style

Temple architecture of south India began under Pallava Ruler Mahendravaraman and progressed over 4 stages and reached its climax during Chola period what came to be known as Dravidian Style.

Feature of Chola Style or Dravidian Style

  1. Shikhara ( Kalash Equivalent)
  2. Vimana ( Nagara's Shikhara Equivalent)
    1. Stepped pyramid Shape
    2. Only one Vimana i.e subsidiary shrines don't have Vimana unlike Nagara Style
  3. Garbhagriha is connected to Mandapa by Antarala
  4. Garbhagriha guarded by Dwaarpal (Mithun & Yakshas) instead of Ganga & Yamuna
  5. Presence of Water tank or reservoir
  6. Elaborate and decorated gopuram in the Entrance
  7. E.g
    1. Brahadeshwara temple, Tanjore
    2. Gangaikondacholapuram, Ariyalur

Sub-schools / Related schools of Dravidian Style

  1. Pallava Style - Precursor to Dravidian Style
    1. Mahendra Varaman Group - Rock-cut Temple
    2. Narasimha Varman Group - Pancha-rathas, Mahabalipuram
    3. Rajsimha Varman Group
      1. Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram
      2. Kailashnath Temple, Kanchipuram
    4. Nandivarman Group
      1. Smaller sized Dravidian Temples
  2. Chola Style - a.k.a Dravida Style
    1. Brahadeshwara temple, Tanjore by Raja Raja 1
    2. Gangaikondacholapuram, Ariyalur by Rajendra 1
  3. Nayaka School or Madurai School - under Nayaka Rulers
    1. Meenakshi Temple, Madurai
      1. Tallest Gopuram in the World
      2. Huge corridors or Prakarns
      3. Intricate Carvings
  4. Vijayanagara School - Dravidian School + Influence of Islamic Architecture
    1. Defense Architecture - Seven layers of fortification with watchtowers and huge gates
    2. Religious Architecture
      1. Gopurams on all four sides unlike one side in Dravidian style
      2. More than one mandapas
      3. Central Mandapas is called Kalyan Mandap
      4. 100s and 1000s of pillars in Mandap
      5. Highly decorated with carvings and geometrical patterns
      6. Monolithic carving of Nadhi
      7. E.g
        1. Vittalaswami temple & Hazra temples at Hampi
        2. Vardraja and Ekambarnatha temples at Kanchipuram and Chidambaram temples
    3. Secular Building
      1. Secular Building inside temple premises
    4. Civilian Architecture
      1. Lotus Mahal, Queens Bath

Filed Under: UPSC, Art & Culture, GS1

Start here for History

August 2, 2020 by BureaucratONE Leave a Comment Last Updated October 1, 2020

Modern History

  • The recommended books are
    1. A Brief History of Modern India by Rajiv Ahir, Spectrum Publication - Buy from Amazon and
    2. History of Modern India by Bipan Chandra, orient Black Swan - Buy from Amazon or
    3. India's Struggle for Independence: 1857-1947 by Bipan Chandra, Penguin Publication Buy from Amazon or
    4. Old NCERT - Modern India - A History textbook for Class XII - Buy from Amazon
  • Last three are the same books by the same author but different publication houses
  • The Syllabus for Modern India starts from Decline of the Mughal Empire that started in 1707 until 1947
  • There are Four things to look for while preparing History
Trinity of HistoryExample 1Example 2Example 3
1.EventsRevolt of 1857Decline of MughalsTo be updated
2.Background / Cause of EventPolicies of British between 1757 to 1857Role of Aurangzeb, Later Mughals, Nobles & Rebellious statesTo be updated
3.Consequence of EventBritish response to RevoltFragmented Polity of 18th centuryTo be updated
4.PersonalitiesRani Lakshmi BaiMughal Emperors, Regional Rulers, NoblesTo be updated
Template for History Preparation
  • For prelims focus on Events and for mains focus on Analysis part i.e Causes and Consequences of events.
  • But while writing an answer for mains most aspirants write causes and consequences of events and leave the factual information of events because the analysis part is easier to memorize and they would have forgotten the facts.
  • But you can stand out only if you mention the factual data backed up with analysis.
  • In addition to factual data, diagrams and flow charts are what make the UPSC topper.
Facts + Analysis + Charts / Diagrams / Maps = History Topper

To be updated....

Filed Under: UPSC, Art & Culture, EBooks, GS1, History, NCERT

Indian Literature

June 30, 2020 by BureaucratONE Leave a Comment Last Updated June 30, 2020

  • Literature classified as
    • Fiction - Usually presented in Narrative Texts
    • Non-fiction - Usually presented in Didactic Texts
  • Other classifications
    • Prose
    • Poem
  • Indian Literature
    • Sanskrit
      1. Vedic Literature
        1. Vedas - Rig, Yajur, Sama, Atharva
        2. Vedanga
        3. Brahmanas
        4. Aranyakas
        5. Upanishads or Vedanta
        6. Puranas
        7. Upa-Puranas
      2. Classical Sanskrit Literature
        1. Two Great Epics or Mahakavya
          1. Mahabharata
          2. Ramayana
        2. Sanskrit Drama
        3. Sanskrit Poetry
    • Sangam Literature
    • Other Dravidian Literature
    • Medieval Literature
    • Modern Literature

Literature in Ancient India

Vedas

  • Veda means knowledge
  • Knowledge to Conduct life
  • Poetic style
  • Full of symbols & Myths
  • Orally transmitted by Brahmins
  • Finally compiled in 3000 BC - 1000 BC
  • Considered as divine revelations
  • Treat entire universe as one big family = Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam
  • There are four Major Vedas - Rig, Yajur, Sama, Atharva
  • Rug, Yajur, Sama - Traji
  • All emphasises on sacrifice
  • Brahmanas, Upanishads & Aranyakas accompany each Veda
  • Rig Veda
    • Oldest
    • Organised in 10 books called Mandalas
    • Each Mandalas has Suktas or hymns
    • Focuses on world prosperity & worldly beauty
    • Chief Deity = Indra
  • Atharva Veda
    • a.k.a Brahma Veda
    • Attributed to two rishis - Atharvah & Angira so a.k.a atharvangirasa
    • Focuses on peace and prosperity and all aspects of man's daily life including treatment of several ailments
    • Two major recensions or sakhas
      • Paippalada
      • Saunakiya
    • Text also deals with black & white magic, speculation of changes in universe
  • Yajur Veda
    • Yajus means Sacrifice
    • A guide book for priests who conducts sacrifice & rituals
    • Two major recensions or samhita
      • Shukla - white / pure
      • Krishna - black / dark
  • Sama Veda
    • Saman means Melody or songs
    • Dues to lyrical nature of text it also called as book of chants
    • Contains Ragas(musical notes) & Raginis

Vedangas

  • To fully understand vedas, supplementary text like vedangas or branches / limbs of vedas are studied
  • There are 6 Vedangas
    • Siksha - education
    • Nirukta - etymology
    • Chhanda - metrics in sanskrit grammar
    • Jyotisha - astronomy
    • Vyakaran - Grammar
    • Kalpa - Rituals
  • Many treaties or rule book was created under these subjects
  • Panini's Ashtadhyayi, a sanskrit grammar text is one such book

Brahmanas

  • Each veda has a Brahmana attached
  • It has commentaries to particular veda
  • Brahmana is a Hindu sruti (revealed knowledge) literature
VedaBrahmanas
Rig Veda1.Aitareya Brahmana
2.Kaushitaki Brahmana
Sama Veda1.Tandya Mahabrahmana
2.Sadvimsha Brahmana
Yajur Veda1.Taittiriya Brahmana
2.Shatpatha Brahmana
Atharva Veda1.Gopatha Brahmana
2.Jaimaniya Brahmana
3.Panchvish Brahmana

Arayankas

  • Taught by forest dwelling holy men called Munis
  • Compilation of Rituals and sacrifices involved in Vedas

Upanishads

  • a.k.a Vedanta = Veda + Anta because they are the end part of vedas
  • Upanishads means to "sit down near" (the teacher)
  • Orally transmitted in Guru-shishya parampara
  • Talks about ways of Moksha or Salvation
  • Out of 200 known upanishads, 108 Upanishads are called Muktika Canon = Important because 108 beads in Hindu Rosary or Mala
  • Difference b/w Upanishads & Arayankas
    • Upanishads - Jnana-kanda - Knowledge / spirituality section
    • Arayanka - Karma-kanda - Ritualistic actions / Sacrifice section

Mahabharata

  • Has several versions but popular version penned by Ved Vyas in Sanskrit
  • Initially 8,800 verses called as Jaya meaning Victory
  • Over a period many stories were added and verses increased to 24,000 and renamed as Bharata by vedic tribes
  • Current form contains 1,00,000 verses divided into 10 Parvas or chapters with insets called Itihas Purana or Mythical history
  • It also includes Bhgwata Gita didactical text of Hindus
    • Concise guide to Hindu Philosophical dilemmas & how to live a righteous life
    • Contains dialogue b/w Lord Krishna & Arjuna
    • Talks about Dharama and various kinds of Dharma
    • Suggests mankind to follow Nishkama Karma, i.e to perform one's duty to the family and world in a selfless way
  • Story is based on conflict b/w Kauravas & Pandavas over throne of Hastinapur
  • Sutradhar or impresario is Lord Krishna

Ramayana

  • Penned by Valmiki, also called as Adikavi or 1st amongst the poets
  • So Ramayana is called Adikavya
  • Compiled around 1500 BC
  • Story is about Rama who is projected as ideal man for mankind
  • It teaches 4 fold objectives or Purshartha through Rama's life
    • Dharma - Religion or Righteousness
    • Artha - (monetary) Achievements in the worldly sphere
    • Kama - Fulfilling worldly desires
    • Moksha - Liberation from these desires
  • It contains 24,000 verses divided into seven books called K(h)andas

Puranas

  • Talks about "that which renews the old"
  • Mythological narrative stories of creation of the universe till its destruction
    • Easy form of story-writing style made it popular among masses
    • Puranas use parables and fables
      • Parables - Stories in prose or verse teaching spiritual, moral or religious lessons featuring Human character
      • Fables - Stories in prose or verse teaching morals through pithy maxim or clear story featuring animals / inanimate objects / mythical creatures / plants. e.g include
        • Panchatantra by Vishnu Sharma
        • Hitopadesha by Narayan Pandit
  • Focuses on Hindu trimurti - trinity / three gods : Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh
  • 18 Major Puranas or Mahapuranas
    • Well known = Bhagavata, Brahma, Vayu, Agni, Garuda, Padma, Vishnu and Matsya

Upa-Puranas

  • Puranas became so popular that gave rise to sub-genre called Upa-Puranas or Minor Puranas
  • 19 Minor Puranas based on 5 Major Subjects dictated by Sanskrit lexicographer from Gupta Age Amaraimha
    • Sarga - The creation of Universe
    • Pratisarga - The periodic cycle of destruction and re-creation
    • Manvantra - The periodic cycle of Manu's lifetime
    • Vamsa - Genealogies of solar and lunar dynasties of Gods and sages
    • Vamshanucharita - Dynastic histories of Kings

Classical Sanskrit Literature

  • Two great epics are precursor to Sanskrit Kavya (epic poetry), nataka (classical drama) & other treatises on medicine, statecraft, grammar(Panini's ashtadhyayi), mathematics etc

Sanskrit Drama

  1. Kalidasa
    1. Malavikagnimitra ( Love story of Malavika & Agnimitra )
    2. Vikramorvasaiya ( Love Story of Vikram and Urvasi )
    3. Abhigyana Sahakuntala ( recognition of shakuntala)
  2. Sudraka
    1. Mrichhakatika (clay-cart) - Love affair of young brahmin charudatta with a courtesan
  3. Vishakhdutta
    1. Mudra Rakshasa - political drama narrates ascent of King Chandragupta Maurya to power
    2. Dev Chandra Gupta
  4. Bhavabhuti
    1. Uttara Ramacharitam - later life of Rama
  5. Bhasa
    1. Swapnavasavadatta - Vasavadatta in Dream

Sanskrit Poetry or Kavya

  • Poetry focuses on form, style, figure of speech unlike drama that focuses on story
  • Major Poets
    1. Kalidasa
      • Kumara Sambhava - birth of Kumar
      • Raghuvamsa - dynasty of Raghus
      • Meghaduta - cloud messenger
      • Ritusambara - medley of seasons
    2. Harisena
      • Poems praising valor of Samudra Gupta, so good later inscribed in Allahabad pillar
    3. Jayadeva
      • Gita Govinda - life of Lord Krishna & his love for Radha
    4. Bharavi
      • kiratarajuniyam - Kirat & Arjun
    5. Magha
      • Sishupalavadha - Killing of Shishupal
    6. Ashvagosha
      1. Saundarananda

Other Sanskrit texts

  1. Dharmasutras - Book of Law
  2. Dharamashastras = {Dharmasutras + Smiritis } - Law book governing most Hindu states
  3. Manusmriti - Law of Manu - defines role of men and women in society based on birth
  4. Arthashastra by kautilya / chanakya / vishnugupta - learnt scholar in court of Chandragupta Maurya
    1. Focus statecraft, military strategy and Kings duties
    2. Socio-economic condition of Mauryan Empire is also mentioned
  5. Buddhacharita by Ashvagosha - biography of Budhdha
    1. He also wrote famous poem called Saundarananda

Scientific Texts

  1. Charak - Charak Samhita (Book on Medicine)
  2. Sushruta - Sushruta Samhita (Book on Surgery)
  3. Madhava - Madhava Nidana (Book on Pathology)
  4. Varamihira
    1. Pancha-Siddhantika (Book on Astrology)
    2. Brihat Samhita (Book on wide ranging subjects like planetary movements, geology, architecture, etc
  5. Aryabhatta - Aryabhatiya (Book on astronomy and mathematics)
  6. Lagdhacharaya - Book on Astrology

Sanskrit literature in Medieval period

  • Not much, just few
    • Kashmir - Kalhan's Rajatarangani - Detailed account of Kings in Kashmir
    • Rajasthan - Somadeva's Katha-sarit-sagar - Poetic work

Literatures in Pali & Prakrit

  • Post vedic period Pali & Prakrit gained prominence
  • Pali is archaic form of Prakrit, while Prakrit is loosely attached to many language that is not Sanskrit
  • Many Buddhist & Jains literature were composed in this language
  • Even Lord Buddha used Pali to give his sermon

Buddhist Literature

  • Categorized as
    • Canonical
      • Tripitakas or baskets (of knowledge)
        • Vinaya Pitaka - Rules and regulations to be followed by Buddhist monks
        • Sutta Pitaka - Speeches of Buddha about morality and righteous dharma
        • Abhidamma Pitaka - Philosophy and metaphysics but also includes ethics, theory of knowledge and psychology
    • Non-Canonical
      • Jatakas
        • Compilation of stories of previous births of Buddha - It is believed Buddha passed through 550 births before being born as Gautama
        • Includes stories of Bodhi-sattva - person on path of becoming buddha
        • These tales combile popular tales + ancient mythology + socio-political conditions of North India
        • Also available in sanskrit and pali

Jain Literature

  • Important Jain Literature is mostly written Prakrit
    • Angas
    • Upangas
    • Parikramas
  • Other Prakrit texts
    • Chhedab Sutra
    • Malasutra
  • Sanskrit Literature is also available
    • Upamitibhava Prapancha Katha by Siddharasi
  • Secular text by Jain writers
    • Hemachandra - Treatise on lexicography & grammar
    • Hala
      • Gathasaptashati - Has some elements of Erotica
      • But most of the verses penned by Female poetesses including Pahai, Roha, Sasippaha, Mahavi and Reva

Dravidian Literature

  • Comprises of Literature in 4 Major Dravidian Language
    • Tamil - Possibly Oldest living Language
    • Kannada
    • Telugu - Largest no of Speakers among other Dravidian Language
    • Malayalam - Youngest Dravidian Language

Sangam (Tamil) Literature

  • Sangam means fraternity
  • Pandya Kingdom organised assemblies where poets and writers can assemble to compile 7 promote Tamil Literature
  • Collection of 2381 poems by 427 poets and 102 anonymous poets
  • Compiled during 300BC and 300AD - So this period is called Sangam Period
  • Two Major Schools
    • Aham/agam or inner field - concentrates on abstract human aspects of love, sexual relations
    • Puram or outerfield - discusses human experiences like social life, ethics, valour & customs...etc
  • 3 Major sangams were organised
SangamKingdomPlace of OrganisationChairmanBooks
1stPandyaMaduraiAgastyarNo book has survived
2ndPandyaKapatapuramInitially Agastyar, then his disciple Tolkapiyar took over2000 poems compiled into Tholkapiyam
3rdPandyaMaduraiNakkirarMost of the existing sangam Literature were written
  • Topics in Tamil Literature
    1. Eighteen Greater Texts or Patinenmel Kanakku Noolgal
      1. Eight Anthologies or Ettuthokai
        1. Ainkurunuru - ஐங்குறுநூறு -  Five hundred short poems
        2. Akanannuru - அகநானூறு - four hundred [poems] in the agam genre
        3. Purananuru - புறநானூறு - four hundred [poems] in the genre puram
        4. Kalithokai - கலித்தொகை - Kali-metre anthology
        5. Kurunthokai - குறுந்தொகை - Short-collection
        6. Natrinai - நற்றிணை - Excellent tinai
        7. Paripaadal - பரிபாடல் - Paripatal-metre anthology
        8. Pathitrupathu - பதிற்றுப் பத்து - Ten Tens
      2. Ten Idylls/ songs or Patthupaattu
        1. Thirumurugatrupadai - திருமுருகாற்றுப்படை - Guide to Lord Murugan
        2. Kurinjipaattu - குறிஞ்சிப்பாட்டு - the song of the mountain
        3. Malaipadukadam - மலைபடுகடாம் - the Echo of the Mountains
        4. Maduraikaanchi - மதுரைக் காஞ்சி
        5. Mullaipaattu - முல்லைப்பாட்டு - jungle song
        6. Nedunalvaadai - நெடுநல்வாடை - good long north wind or cold season
        7. Pattina Paalai - பட்டினப் பாலை - City and desert
        8. Perumbaanaatrupadai - பெரும்பாணாற்றுப்படை - guide for poet with the large lute
        9. Perunaaratrupadai - பொருநராற்றுப்படை - Guide for war poet / singer
        10. Sirubanaatrupadai - சிறுபாணாற்றுப்படை - Guide for bards with the small lute
    2. Eighteen Lesser Texts or Patinenkil Kanakku noolgal
      1. Naaladiyaar - நாலடியார் - Four Feet - Composed by Jain Monks on Ethics & Morality
      2. Naanmanikadigai - நான்மணிக்கடிகை - Four Gemed Jewelry
      3. Inna Narpathu - இன்னா நாற்பது - 40 undesirables
      4. Iniyavai Narpathu - இனியவை நாற்பது - 40 desirables
      5. Kar Narpathu - கார் நாற்பது - 40 Rain
      6. Kalavazhi Narpathu - களவழி நாற்பது
      7. Ainthinai Aimpathu - ஐம்பது - 5 Landscapes in 50 poems
      8. Tinaimozhi Aimpatu - திணைமொழி ஐம்பது - Language of 5 Landscapes in 50 poems
      9. Aintinai Elupatu - ஐந்திணை எழுபது - 5 Landscapes in 70 poems
      10. Thinaimalai Nurru Aimpathu -திணைமாலை நூற்றைம்பது
      11. Thirukkural - திருக்குறள் - Sacred Verses
        1. By Thiruvalluvar on mainly ethics & morality
        2. 3 Parts
          1. Aram - Ethics
          2. Porul - Wealth
          3. Inbam - Love
      12. Thirikatukam - திரிகடுகம் - 3 Herbs
      13. Acharakkovai - ஆசாரக்கோவை - garland of right conduct
      14. Pazhamozhi Nanuru - பழமொழி நானூறு - 400 proverbs - Jain Author
      15. Siruppanchamulam - சிறுபஞ்சமூலம் - 5 Herbal Roots
      16. Muthumozhikkanchi - முதுமொழிக்காஞ்சி
      17. Elathi - ஏலாதி - 6 Herbs
      18. Kainnilai - கைநிலை & Innilai - இந்நிலை
    3. Other Sangam Texts
      1. Avvaiyar - Female saint created many literary works. e.g - aathichoodi
    4. Other literature post sangam period
      1. Two Great Epics
        1. Silappadhikaram by Ilango-Adigal - Story of an Anklet
        2. Manimekalai by Chattanar - Story of Manimekalai
      2. Bakti Movement
        1. Vaishnava Bhakti Saints
          1. Alvars - 12
            1. Andal is only female alvar saint
        2. Shaivism Bhakti Saints
          1. Nayanmars - 63
            1. Appar or Tirunavukkarayar
            2. Nandanar - Only Dalit Saint
            3. Kaaraikaal Ammaiyaar - Women Saint
            4. Sirunthodar - Army General of Pallava King Narasima Varman II
            5. Cheraman Perumal - Chera King Rama Rajasekhara
            6. Ninra Seer Nedumaaran - Pandya King
            7. Magayakarasiyaar - Queen & wife of Ninra Seer Nedumaaran
      3. Two major Secular Writing
        1. Periya Puranam
        2. Kambaramayanam
LandscapeEnglish traslationGodPeople
Mullai Forest
Kurinji Mountains
Marutham Farmland
Paalai Desert
Neithal Seashore

Malayalam Literature

  • Malayalam Originated in 11th Century, yet developed rich literature to call as independent literature
  • Works
    • Kokasandisan
    • Bhasa Kautilya - Commentary on Arthashastra

Telugu Literature

  • Vijayanagara Period - Golden Age of Telugu Literature
    • Uttaraharivamsam by Nachana Somanatha, court poet of Bukka I
    • Amukta Malyada by King Krishnadevaraya
  • Krishnadevaraya had 8 learned literary personages in his court or Ashtadiggajas
    1. Allasani Peddana or Andhra kavitapitamaha - Manucharitam
    2. Nandi Timmana - parijathapaharanam
    3. Tenali Ramakrishna - Panduranga Mahatmayam
    4. Ramrajabhushana or Bhattumurti
      1. Vasucharitram
      2. Narasabhupaliyam
      3. Harishchandra Nalopakhyanam
    5. Madayagari Mallana - Rajashekharacharitra
    6. Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra
      • Ramabhyudayam
      • Akalkathasara

Kannada Literature

  • Ratnatraya or Three Gems - Most Important 3 great scholars
    1. Pampa - Father of Kannada, poet in court of Chalukya Arikesari
      • Adi Purana
      • Vikramarjiva Vijaya
    2. Ponna
      1. Shanti Purana
      2. Poet in court of Rashtrakuta king Krishna III
    3. Ranna
      1. Ajitanatha Purana
      2. Poet in court of Rashtrakuta king Krishna III
  • Many Jain scholars were the 1st to foray into Kannada Literature
    • Dharmanathapurana by madhava on Life of 15th tirthankara
    • DharamaParikshe by Uritta Vilasa
    • Kavirajamang by Rashtrakuta King Nriptunga Amoghavarsha I
  • Other major Kannada texts
    • Harishvara
      • Harishchandra Kavya
      • Somanatha Charita
    • Bandhuvarma
      • Harivamshabhyudaya
      • Jiva Sambodhana
    • Rudra Bhata
      • Jagannathavijaya
    • Andayya
      • Madana Vijaya or Kabbigara kava - 1st pure kannada text without sanskrit word
    • Keirja
      • Shabdamanidarpana
    • Mallikarjuna
      • Suktisudharnava
    • Narahari
      • Tarave Ramayana
    • Lakshamisha a.k.a Kamata-karicutavana-Chaitra
      • Jaimini Bharata
    • Tripadi
      • Sarvajna
    • Honnamma -1st poetess
      • Hadibadeya Dharma

Medieval Literature

  • Persian emerged as the language of Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Court
  • Hindi Developed from Apabhramsha

Persian Literature

  1. Amir Khusrau Dehlawi or Amir Khusrau of Delhi
    1. Diwan - a collection of poetry in Persian
    2. Nuh Sipihr
    3. Masnavi Duwal Rani Khizr Khan - a tragic love poem
  2. Zia-ud din Barani - top historian
    1. Tarikh-e-Firuz Shahi
  3. Minhaj-us-Siraj - another famous historian
  4. Ibn Batuta - Moroccan traveler
    1. Several accounts on the socio-political scenario of that period
  5. Babur
    1. Tuzuk-I-Babari, an autobiography in Turkish
  6. Jahangir
    1. Tuzuk-I-Jahangiri
  7. Gulbadan Begum, half-sister of Humayun
    1. Humayun-nama
  8. Akbar's Period
    1. Illiterate but ordered translation of Mahabarata(Razmnama), Ramayana, Bhagwat Gita and several Upanishads into Persian
    2. Literature reached its peak during his rule
      1. Highly illustrated work - Hamzanama = Mythical Persian Hero, Amir Hamza
      2. Malik Muhammad Jayasi - Padmavat
      3. Badauni wrote on ethics of political rule
      4. Faizi a master in Persian poetry
    3. Abul Fazl, historian in Akbar's court
      1. Ain-e-Akbari
      2. Akbarnama
  9. Shah Jahan's period
    1. Shah Jhan-nama of Abdhul Hameed Lahori
  10. Aurangzeb's period
    1. Tabqat-i-Alamgiri by Aurangzeb
    2. Kulliyat by Mir Jafar Zatalli

Urdu

  • Urdu developed through interaction of Hindi and Persian
  • Follows Hindi grammar & Persian script
  • Initially called as Dakkani(southern) because it is used in Bahamani state of Ahmedabad, Golconda, Bijapur & Berar
  • Poets
    • Mirza Ghalib - Diwan (collection of poetry)
    • Sauda
    • Dard
    • Mir Taqi Mir
    • Iqbal
      • Saare Jahan se achcha
      • Bang-i-Dara
  • Post-medieval period Bhadur Shah Zafar wrote in urdu & Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan wrote many nationalistic texts in urdu

Hindi & it Dialects

  • Hindi evolved in 7th & 14th century from Apabhramsa,which in turn evolved from Prakrit
  • Bhakti Movement gave big boost to Hindi as they shunned Sanskrit (Brahmin Monopoly) as common people didn't use it.
  • 1st Hindi Book - Prithviraj Raso - Life of Prithvi Raj Chauhan
  • Many of Hindi literature by Bakti writers
    • Kabir - Dohas (couplet)
    • Tulsidas
      • Couplets in Braj & bit of Persian
      • Ramacharitmanas
    • Lord Krishna became focus for many writers
      • Surdas wrote Sur Sagar(Krishna's infancy & his affairs with gopis)
      • Rahim, Bhusan & Raskhan also wrote about devotion to Krishna
      • Mirabai - women devotee
      • Biharis' Satsai (700 verses)

Modern literature

Modern Hindi Literature

  • Modern Literature is called Adhunik Kaal & had 4 sub-section
    1. Bhartendu Yug - 1868 - 1893
    2. Dwivedi Yug - 1893 - 1918
    3. Chhayavad Yug - 1918 - 1937
    4. Contemporary Yug - 1937 onwards
  • Indian national movement gave zest to go back to classics and be inspired by Sanskrit
  • Writers
    • Mahadevi Verma (Padma Vibhushan recipient)
    • Harivansha Rai Bachchan wrote Madhushala
    • Bharatendu Harishchandra
      • Andheri Nagari (city of darkness)
      • Bharat Durdasha
    • Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi
    • Swami Dayanand - Satyartha Prakash
    • Munshi Prem Chand
    • Surya Kant Tripathi or Nirala
    • Maithili Sharan Gupt
    • Sumitranandan pant
    • Ramdhari Singh or Dinakar

Bengali, Odia and Assamese Literature

  • Indian national movement and print press called Baptist Mission Press by William Carey in 1800 gave rise wide distribution and development of Bengali Literature
  • Many ancient and medieval literatures like Mangal Kavyas widely published
  • Many nationalist writing became quite famous
    • Raja Ram Mohan Roy
    • Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
    • Akshay Kumar Dutta
    • Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
      • Anand Math - Vandem mataram is an excerpt from this novel
    • Rabindranath Tagore
      • Awarded Nobel Prize for Geetanjali in 1913
    • Sharat Chandra Chatterjee
    • Qazi Nazrul Islam
    • R. C Dutta
  • Assamese Literature
    • Dominated by Buranjis (court chronicles)
    • Shankerdev composed devotional poetry
    • Padmanaba Gohain Barua
    • Lakshmi nath Bezbarua
  • Odia Literature
    • Sarala Das
    • Upendra Bhanja
    • Radha Nath Ray
    • Fakirmohan Senapati

Gujarati, Rajasthani and Sindhi Literature

  • Bakti movement peaked in Gujarat which affected the literature
  • Narsinh Mehta - Devotional songs of Krishna
  • Narmad
  • Govardhan Ram - Saraswati Chandra
  • Dr. K.M Munshi - Prithvi Vallabha
  • Rajasthani Literature
    • Had several dialects and two forms
      • Dingal
      • Pingal
    • Dhola Maru
    • Mirabai's writings in Braj is also famous
    • Mostly oral & works spread through Virkavya(victory poetic songs)
  • Sindhi Literature
    • Influenced by neighboring Rajasthan & Gujarat
    • 1st to come under Islamic settlers, which explains the influence of sufism & Islamic poetry
    • Dewan Kauramal
    • Mirza Kalish Beg

Kashmiri Literature

  • Medieval Period - Kalhan's Rajatarangani in Sanskrit
  • During peak Bhakti movement
    • Lal Ded - 1st female poet & Shaivite mystic
  • After spread of Islam & Sufism
    • Sufi Ghulam Mohammad
    • Zinda Kaul
    • Mahjoor
    • Noor Din or Nand Rishi
  • After Dogra family's ascent to power in 1846 Dogri language developed

Punjabi Literature

  • Due to geographical influence Punjabi has two scripts
    • Persian
    • Gurmukhi
  • Adikranth - Sikh religious text in Gurmukhi mostly
    • comprises of dohas of kabir, dadu and Nanak in Hindi or Braj
    • Guru Gobind Singh also contributed to it
      • also wrote Savaiyyas (Poetry)
  • Waris Shah
    • Epics like Sohni-Mahiwal, Sassi-Punnu & Heer(-Ranjha)
  • Sufi poetry by
    • Baba Farid
    • Bulley Shah
  • Nationalist writing
    • Bhagat Singh's Rang de Basanti Chola
    • Bhai Vir Singh's Rana Surat Singh

Marathi Literature

  • During Bakti movement
    • Saint Jnaneshwar
      • began Kirtan in MH
      • Commentary on Bhagavad Gita
    • Namdev
    • Sena
    • Gora
    • Janabai - Oldest know Female writer
    • Eknath
      • Commentary on Bhagwata Purana & Ramayana
    • Tukaram
    • Ramdas
  • Nationalist writers
    • Bal Gangadhar Tilak - Kesari in Marathi
  • Others
    • Hari Narayan Apte
    • V.S.Chiplunkar
    • Keshav Sut
    • M.G.Ranade
    • G.T.Madholkar
    • K.T.Telang

Filed Under: UPSC, Art & Culture

Previous year's History Mains Question and Answer – UPSC CSE

April 29, 2020 by BureaucratONE Leave a Comment Last Updated April 29, 2020

Previous years UPSC Civil Service mains question - Art & Culture

2019

  1. Highlight the Central Asian and Greco-Bactrian elements in Gandhara art.

2018

  1. Safeguarding the Indian Art Heritage is the need of the moment. Discuss.
  2. Assess the importance of the accounts of the Chinese and Arab Travellers in the reconstruction of the history of India.
  3. The Bhakti movement received a remarkable re-orientation with the advent of Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. Discuss

2017

  1. How do you justify the view that the level of excellence of the Gupta numismatic art is not at all noticeable in later times?
  2. Examine how the decline of traditional artisanal industry in colonial India crippled the rural economy.

2016

  1. Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives successfully expounds Buddhist ideals. Elucidate.
  2. Krishnadeva Raya, the King of Vijayanagar, was not only an accomplished scholar himself but was also a great patron of learning and literature. Discuss.

2015

  1. The ancient civilization in Indian sub-continent differed from those of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Greece in that its culture and traditions have been preserved without a breakdown to the present day. Comment.
  2. Mesolithic rock-cut architecture of India not only reflects the cultural life of the times but also a fine aesthetic sense comparable to modem painting. Critically evaluate this comment.

2014

  1. To what extent has the urban planning and culture of the Indus Valley Civilization provided inputs to the present day urbanization? Discuss.
  2. Gandhara sculpture owed as much to the Romans as to the Greeks. Explain.
  3. Taxila university was one of the oldest universities of the world with which were associated a number of renowned learned personalities of different disciplines. Its strategic location caused its fame to flourish, but unlike Nalanda, it is not considered as a university in the modern sense. Discuss.
  4. Sufis and medieval mystic saints failed to modify either the religious ideas and practices or the outward structure of Hindu / Muslim societies to any appreciable extent. Comment.

2013

  1. Though not very useful from the point of view of a connected political history of South India, the Sangam literature portrays the social and economic conditions of its time with remarkable vividness. Comment.
  2. Discuss the Tandava dance as recorded in the early Indian inscriptions.
  3. Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple architecture. Discuss.

Previous years UPSC Civil Service mains question - Freedom Struggle

2019

  1. The 1857 Uprising was the culmination of the recurrent big and small local rebellions that had occurred in the preceding hundred years of British rule. Elucidate
  2. Many voices had strengthened and enriched the nationalist movement during the Gandhian phase. Elaborate.

2018

  1. Why indentured labour was taken by the British from India to other colonies? Have they been able to preserve their cultural identity over there?

2017

  1. Clarify how mid-eighteenth century India was beset with the spectre of a fragmented polity.

2016

  1. Explain how the Uprising of 1857 constitutes an important watershed in the evolution of British policies towards colonial India.
  2. Discuss the role of women in the freedom struggle especially during the Gandhian phase.
  3. Highlight the differences in the approach of Subhash Chandra Bose and Mahatma Gandhi in the struggle for freedom.

2015

  1. How different would have been the achievement of Indian independence without Mahatma Gandhi? Discuss.
  2. It would have been difficult for the Constituent Assembly to complete its historic task of drafting the Constitution for Independent India in just three years but for the experience gained with the Government of India Act, 1935. Discuss.

2014

  1. The third battle of Panipat was fought in 1761. Why were so many empire-shaking battles fought at Panipat?
  2. Examine critically the various facets of economic policies of the British in India from mid-eighteenth century till independence.
  3. In what ways did the naval mutiny prove to be the last nail in the coffin of British colonial aspirations in India?

2013

  1. Defying the barriers of age, gender and religion, the Indian women became the torch bearer during the struggle for freedom in India. Discuss.
  2. Several foreigners made India their homeland and participated in various movements. Analyze their role in the Indian struggle for freedom.
  3. In many ways, Lord Dalhousie was the founder of modern India. Elaborate.

Previous years UPSC Civil Service mains question – Post-Independence History of India

2019

  1. Examine the linkages between the nineteenth century's "Indian Renaissance" and the emergence of national identity.

2018

  1. Throw light on the significance of the thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi in the present times.
  2. Discuss whether the formation of new states in recent times is beneficial or not for the economy of India.

2017

  1. Highlight the importance of the new objectives that got added to the vision of Indian Independence since the twenties of the last century.
  2. The women's questions arose in modern India as a part of the 19th century social reform movement. What are the major issues and debates concerning women in that period?
  3. Distinguish between religiousness/religiosity and communalism giving one example of how the former has got transformed into the latter in independent India.

2013

  1. Critically discuss the objectives of Bhoodan and Gramdan movements initiated by Acharya Vinoba Bhave and their success.
  2. Write a critical note on the evolution and significance of the slogan "Jai Jawana Jai Kisan".
  3. Discuss the contribution of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad to pre-and post-independent India.
  4. Analyze the circumstances that led to Tashkent Agreement in 1966. Discuss the highlights of the agreement.
  5. Critically examine the compulsions which prompted India to play a decisive roles in the emergence of Bangladesh.

Previous years UPSC Civil Service mains question – World History

2019

1. Explain how the foundation of the modern world was laid by the American and French Revolutions.

2017

  1. Why did the 'Moderates' failed to carry conviction with the nation about their proclaimed ideology and political goals by the end of the nineteenth century?

2016

  1. The anti-colonial struggles in West Africa were led by the new elite of Western-educated Africans. Examine.

2015

  1. Why did the industrial revolution first occur in England? Discuss the quality of life of the people there during the industrialization. How does it compare with that in India at present?
  2. To what extent can Germany be held responsible for causing the two World Wars? Discuss critically

2014

  1. What were the major political, economic and social developments in the world which motivated the anti-colonial struggle in India?
  2. What were the events that led to the Suez Crisis in 1956? How did it deal a final blow to Britain's self-image as a world power?
  3. The New Economic Policy – 1921 of Lenin had influenced the policies adopted by India soon after independence. Evaluate.

2013

  1. "Latecomer" Industrial revolution in Japan involved certain factors that were markedly different from what west had experience.
  2. Africa was chopped into states artificially created by accident of European competition. Analyse.
  3. American Revolution was an economic revolt against mercantilism. Substantiate.
  4. What policy instruments were deployed to contain the great economic depression?

Filed Under: Art & Culture, mains questions, UPSC

Modern Indian Architecture

March 31, 2020 by BureaucratONE Leave a Comment Last Updated March 31, 2020

  • Based on two Imperial powers
    • Portuguese
    • British
      • Indo Gothic
      • Neo Roman

Portuguese

  • Used Iberian style for church making
IberianGothic
Material used1.Brick as main material
2.Wood for roofs & stairs
1.Red sand stone & Coarse limestone as main material
Structure Variation Continued western architectural styleIntroduced new variations
OriginIberian Peninsula, PortugeseFrance

British

Indo Gothic

  • a.k.a Indo Saracenic Style
  • a.k.a Victorian Style
  • Hybrid of Mughal + Hindu + Western
  • Features
    • Elaborate and Large construction
    • Advance British structural engineering standards = use of steel + iron + concrete
    • Thinner Wall
    • Pointed Wall
    • Large Windows
    • Crucified ground plan
    • E.g
      • St. Paul's Cathedral, Kolkata
      • Victoria Memorial, Kolkata
      • Gateway of India, Mumbai
      • Lakshmi Vilas Palace, Vadodra

Neo Roman or Neo-Classical Style

  • Post 1911 - when capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi
  • Delhi
    • Designed by Edwin Lutyens & Herbert Baker
  • Features
    • Anonymous construction = w/o any interesting features = Criticism
    • Simplicity, modernity and Utility was compromised due to hybrid nature
    • Circular building
  • E.g
    • Rashtrapati Bhawan
    • Parliament House
    • Supreme Court

Contribution of Architects

Laurie Baker

  • Architect of Poor
  • Used locally available material
  • Avoided Plastering of walls to save on cement
  • Introduced filler slab to reduce consumption of steel and cement
  • Jali Works for ventilation and lighting
  • Exposed brick design
  • Architectural elements as furniture - utility & aesthetics
  • British Origin but settled in Kerala - Revolutionized mass housing in kerala

Le Corbusier

  • Master plan for Chandigarh
  • Specific design inputs for several buildings in Chandigarh

Charles Correa

  • Indian Architect, Urban Planner, Activist
  • Awarded Padma Shri and Padma Vibhushan
  • Sensitive to the needs of urban poor and environment
  • Royal Gold Medal from Royal Institute of British Architects
  • E.g
    • Jawahar kala Kendra
    • National Crafts Museum
    • Bharat Bhavan

Filed Under: Art & Culture

Architecture of Medieval India

March 27, 2020 by BureaucratONE Leave a Comment Last Updated March 31, 2020

  • A.k.a Indo-Islamic
  • Replaced Trabeate Style with Arcuate Style
TrabeateArcuate
EntranceLintelArch
TopShikharaDome
MinarsAbsentPresent (Azan)
MaterialStonesBrick, Lime & Mortar
  • Special Features
    • Arch and dome
    • Presence of Minar
    • Mortar for cementing
    • Avoided human and animal figures
    • Used Calligraphy, ARABESQUE (decoration based on floral figures, geometric patterns)
    • Intricate Jali Work for lighting
    • Use of water in the form of courtyard pools for cooling, fountains for decoration, religious purpose like washing feets
    • Charbagh Style
    • Pietra dura technique - inlay of precious stones on the surface
    • Foresighting technique - inscription appears of the same size from any place

Classification of Medieval Architecture

  1. Delhi Sultanate
    1. Imperial Style - Patronized by Rulers
    2. Provincial Style - Patronized by Local rulers and Chiefs
  2. Mughal Period
    1. Mughal Architecture
    2. Sikh Architecture
    3. Rajput Architecure

Delhi Sultanate

Imperial Style

Slave Dynasty / Ilbari Dynasty

  • Style developed by them is called Mamluk Style
  • All belonged to Ilbari Tribe except Qutubuddin Aibak
  • Converted existing temples into mosques
  • E.g
    • Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque from Jain Temple
    • Alai din ka jhopra, Ajmer
    • Qutub Minar from demolishing 27 temples (named after Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, a Sufi saint )

Khilji Dynasty

  • Seljuk Style
  • Used mortar, red sandstone and arch /dome method
  • E.g
    • Alai Darwaja in Qutub Minar Complex by Alaudin Khilji
    • Siri Fort / Siri City founded by Alaudin Khilji

Tughlaq Dynasty

  • Crisis period of Architecture
  • Focused on strength over beauty
  • So combined Arch + Lintel = Battar (Sloping wall)
  • Established 3 Cities
    • Tughlakabad by Gyasuddin Tughlaq
    • Jahapanah by Md Bin Tughlaq
    • Feroz Shah Kotla / Ferozabad by Firozshah Tughlaq
CityFounderRemark
1Qutb Minar complex/Mehrauli { Qila Rai Pithora (earlier Lal Kot) }Rajput Tomar to Prithviraj Chauhan to Qutubuddin Aibak2nd Battle Terrain 1192, PRC ceded to Mamluk/Slave dynasty QBA
2 Siri Fort Allauddin Khilji To protect from Mongols; Hauz Khas region
3 Tughlaqabad Ghiyasuddin Tughluq
4JahapanahMohammed bin Tughlaq literally Sanctuary of the World; b/w two Delhis (Qutb Minar complex and Siri)
5 Firozabad Firozshah Tughlaq
6 Shergarh / Dilli sher Shahi Sher Shah Suri Started as Dinpanah by Humayun; Near Indraprastha
7 Shajahanabad Shah Jahan Walled city containing the Lal Qila & Chandni Chowk; nowadays known as Old Delhi

Lodi Dynasty

  • Again crisis period for Architecture
  • Commissioned Tombs
  • Introduced double dome(bcos focused on strength)
  • No decorations
  • E.g
    • Lodi Garden by Sikander Lodi
    • Sikander Lodi founded Agra city

Provincial Style

Bengal School of Architecture

  • Bricks & black Marble were used
  • No focus on decoration or strength but only Massiveness
  • Usage of Mortar & Lime plaster was less
  • Large windows for ventilation, artificial Water storage called Baulis
  • Batter system
  • Use of locally available materials
  • E.g
    • Kadam Rasul Mosque, Gaur
    • Adina Mosque, Pandua

Malwa School of Architecture

  • Absence of Minars in Mosques
  • European Influence - Large Windows
  • Use of Arch with pillars and Beams
  • Well proportioned Staircase
  • E.g
    • Hindola Mahal, Mandu
    • Rani Rupmati Pavilion, Mandu

Jaunpur School of Architecture

  • Under Sharqui dynasty
  • Absence of minars , like Malwa School
  • Bold & forceful character painted on central and side bays of prayer hall
  • E.g
    • Atala Mosque, Jaunpur

Bijapur / Deccan School of Architecture

  • Under the patronage of Adil Shah of Bijapur
  • Three arched facade
  • Bulbous dome
  • Cornices(chhjja)
  • E.g
    • Gol Gumbaj (mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah) - Largest dome in the world
    • Charminar & Golconda Fort by Mohammed Quli Qutb Shah

Mughal Architecture

Babur

  • Constant War, no time on Architecture
  • Built only 2 mosques
    • Panipat
    • Rohilkhand

Humayun

  • Constant struggle with Sher Shah, no time on Architecture
  • Founded city of Dinpanah but could not complete

Akbar

  • Keen interest in development of architecture
  • Focus on both strength and gracefulness
  • Influence of Hindu elements
  • Extensive use of red sandstone and Tudor Arch (four-centered arch)
  • E.g
    • Agra Fort
      • red sandstone
      • Charbagh Style
      • Most architecture inside Agra fort constructed by Shah Jahan
        • Moti Masjid(different from one in Red fort)
        • Diwan-e-aam (hall of public audience)
        • Diwan-e-khas (hall of private audience)
      • Jahangir Mahal - Aurangzeb house arrested Shah Jahan here
      • Harams - Place for women only - Akbar had 5000 women
    • Fatehpur Sikri
      • Capital City
      • Imp structures inside are
        • Buland Darwaza - commemorate triumph over Deccan
        • Jodhabahi's Palace
        • Panch Mahal
        • Ibadat Khana - meeting house where various religious leaders discuss spiritual matters
        • Salim Chisti's Tomb - best Jali work in India
      • Temple of Govid Dev in Vrindavan

Jahangir

  • Focus on paintings than on architecture
  • E.g
    • Akbar Tomb, Sikandara
    • His own Tomb - Only ruler to do it
    • Moti Masjid in Lahore (different from two Moti Masjid in India)
    • Shalimar Bagh, Kashmir
  • Noor Jahan (wife of Jahangir) constructed tomb of her father
    • Itmad-ud-daula
    • 1st mughal work completely of marble
    • Pietra Dura extensively used

Shahjahan

  • Mughal Architecture reached its climax
  • E.g
    • Taj Mahal - for Mumtaz Mahal (Arzum Bano Begum)
    • Red Fort, Delhi
    • Jama Masjid, Delhi
    • Shalimar Bagh, Lahore
    • Established city of Shahjahanabad
    • Peacock Throne
      • by Bebudal Khan
      • Couplet of Amir Khusro - 'If there is heaven on earth, it is this, it is this, it is this'

Aurangzeb

  • Disliked architecture
  • Bibi ka maqbara by his sons in the memory of their mother - poor imitation of taj mahal
  • E.g
    • Moti Masjid, Red Fort (white marble)
    • Badshahi Mosque, Lahore

Sikh Architecture

  • Golden Temple
    • Foundation laid by Ramdas
    • Completed by Arjun Deb
  • Features
    • Had Mughal influence
    • Multiplicity of chhatris
    • Fluted dome covered with brass and copper gilt
    • Chhaja- Shallow Cornice

Rajput Architecture

  • Introduced Hanging Balcony constructed in all shaped and sizes
  • Arch shaped cornices
  • Experimental work - combining Hindu and Islamic Architecture
    • Hava Mahal or Palace of Wind

Filed Under: Art & Culture

Temple Architecture of South India

March 27, 2020 by BureaucratONE Leave a Comment Last Updated November 2, 2020

Dravidian School of Architecture

  • Oldest Style of Architecture
  • Started by Pallavas and flourished under cholas
  • Chola style is what came to be Known as Dravida Style
  • Features
    • High Boundary Wall
    • Gopuram - Decorated Gateway
    • Panchayatan Style
    • Shikhara in Nagara is called as Vimana in Dravidian School
    • On top of Vimana there is Shikhara = equivalent of Kalash & Amalak
    • Only one vimana - no vimana or shikhara in subsidiary shrines like Nagara style
    • Antarala - Vestibular tunnel between Assembly hall & garbhagriha
    • The entrance of garbhagriha has sculptures of Dwarpal - {Mithun & Yakshas}
    • Crucified ground plan & upraised platform
  • E.g
    • Brihadeshwara Temple, Tanjore (by Raja Raja 1) >1000 years old
    • Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple (Rajendra 1 son of Raja Raja 1 after conquering Gangetic delta)

Styles of Dravida Architecture

Pallava Style

  • Began Under Mahendra Varman and studied under 4 groups
  • Stage 1 - Mahendra Group
    • Rock cut caves; no real temples
    • Word mandap used instead of temple
    • E.g
      • Adivaraha cave
      • Durga Cave
  • Stage 2 - Narsimhan Varman Group
    • Decoration in rock-cut caves
    • Mandapas now become rathas
    • 6 rathas in 1 cave
    • Largest Rath - Darmaraj Rath - Precursor to Dravidian Style
    • Smallest Rath - Draupati Rath
  • Stage 3 - Rajsimha Varman Group
    • Real structural Temple
    • E.g
      • Shore temple, Mahabalipuram
      • Kailashnath Temple, Kanchipuram
  • Stage 4 - Nandivarman Group
    • Developed small temples
    • Had all features of Dravida Style

Chola Style

  • under Patronage of Cholas
  • Revived Pallava style and Temple architecture reached its glory
  • Chola style is what came to be Known as Dravida Style
  • Vimana dominates the whole structure and rest discussed in 1st para.
  • E.g
    • Brihadeshwara Temple, Tanjore (by Raja Raja 1) >1000 years old
    • Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple (Rajendra 1 son of Raja Raja 1 after conquering Gangetic delta)

Vijayanagara Style

  • Under the patronage of Vijayanagara empire with capital Hampi
  • Variations from Dravidian Style
    • Gopuram on all sides and enlarged
    • More than 1 mandap and 1 central mandap called Kalyan Mandap
  • Highly decorated with supernatural horse motifs and geometrical pattern
  • Religious and secular architecture
    • Religious - Vithalsamy Temple & Virbadhra Temple at Lepakshi
    • Secular - Lotus Mahal, Hall of dance at Lepakshi

Nayaka Style / Madurai Style

  • Under patronage of Nayaka Rulers
  • New features in addition to Dravida style
    • Presence of Parakarns or huge corridors in portico, around garbhagriha
    • Very High Gopuram - Meenakshi temple has the tallest gopuram in the world
  • Intricate carvings all over the walls
  • E.g - Meenakshi Temple, Madurai

Vesara Style of Architecture / Karnataka Style / Chalukya Style

  • Flourished under Chalukyas
  • 7th - 8th century AD
  • Fusion of Nagara and Dravida style
  • Emphasis on Vimana and Mandap
  • Open Ambulatory around sanctum
  • E.g
    • Ladkhan temple (aihole)
    • Temples at Badami

Hoysala Architecture

  • Under the patronage of Hoysalas near Mysore
  • 1050-1300 AD
  • Main Centres - Belur, Halebidu, Sringeri
  • Multiple Shrines around central pillared hall = equality to all deities unlike Panchayatan Style
  • Star-shaped ground plan or stellate plan
  • Built on an upraised platform called Jagati
  • Use of soft stone - Chlorite schist for intricate carving
  • e.g
    • Chennakesava Temple, Somnathapuram
    • Hoyasaleshwar Temple, Halebidu 

Pala Architecture

  • Under Palas (Buddhist) & Senas (Hindu) rulers
  • Bihar - Bengal Region
  • 8th -12th century
  • Influence of both Buddhism and Hinduism
  • Sculptures were highly decorated and polished
  • Metal and stone were used for sculptures
  • Use of burnt bricks & clay or terracotta
  • e.g
    • Siddheshware Mahadeva Temple, Barakar
    • Temple of Vishnupur

Filed Under: Art & Culture

Gupta Age – 300 – 500 AD

March 26, 2020 by BureaucratONE Leave a Comment Last Updated March 27, 2020

  • Known as 'The Golden Age of Indian Architecture'
  • Development of caves remained constant with mural paintings as an added feature
  • Begining of temple architecture and also reached climax during Gupta period

Caves

  • Ajanta Caves
  • Ellora Caves
  • Bagh Caves
  • Junagadh Caves
  • Nasik Caves
  • Mandapeshwar Caves
  • Elephanta Caves

Ajanta Caves

  • In Aurangabad district of MH
  • Buddist Theme
  • Cut, carved and painted at different times from 200 BC to 600 AD
  • UNESCO World Heritage Site
  • Paintings depicted Jataka Tales
  • Dignaga, Buddhist philosopher lived here - Source Huen Tsang
  • Two Phases of construction
    • Satavahana Rule - 2nd century BCE - Hinayana(symbols)
    • Vakataka Rule - 5th to 7th Century BCE - Mahayana(idols)

Ellora Caves

  • Aurangabad (MH)
  • 32 caves = 16 Brahmins + 12 Buddhist + 4 Jains
  • 2nd AD to 10th AD
  • Hinduism
    • Kailasanath Temple - partly rock-cut + partly structural
      • Design similar to Mount Kailash
      • By Rashtrakuta King Krishna
      • Monolithic multi-storeyed temple
      • Dravidian Architecture
      • Cave - 16
    • Dashavatara Cave - Cave 15
      • Two-storeyed temple
      • monolithic mandapa
      • free standing
      • 10 avatars of Vishnu
      • Inscription of grant of Dantidurga of Rashtrakuta
    • Cave - 10
      • Chaitya dedicated to Vishwakarma
    • Cave - 14
      • Ravan ki Khai
  • Buddhism
    • Mostly Viharas & monasteries
  • Jainism
  • Indra Sabha
  • Jagannatha Sabha built by Rashtrakuta

Bagh Caves

  • Near Bagh river, M.P
  • Similar to Ajanta Caves
  • 9 sandstone caves
  • Entirely Buddhist Theme

Junagadh Caves

  • In Gujarat
  • Buddhist Monastery
  • Main feature - Uparkot(citadel)

Mandapeshwar Caves

  • In Mandapeshwar,M.H
  • Only Brahminical cave to be converted into a Christian Shrine
  • a.k. Mobtepezir
  • Ruins of old Portuguese church is found
  • Sculptures of Nataraja, Sadashiva and Ardhanarishvara

Elephanta Caves

  • In islands of elephant, Mumbai
  • UNESCO World Heritage Site
  • Island derived its name from giant Elephant carving
  • Two groups of caves
    • 5 large Hindu caves - Shaiva theme - Trimurti sculpture
    • 2 smaller Buddhist cave

Temple Architecture

Temple with squared sanctum and pillared portico emerged during Gupta Period. Temple architecture developed in 5 stages

1st Stage

  • Square Temple
  • Flat roof temple
  • Shallow pillared approach
  • Temple constructed on low platform
  • E.g - temple no-17 at Sanchi Kankalidevi temple, Tigwa, MP

2nd Stage

  • Continued Feature
    • Square temple
    • Flat roof Temple
  • Tall pillared approach
  • Higher platform
  • Covered ambulatory passage around garbhgriha (sanctum santorum)
  • 2 storeyed temples are also found
  • E.g - Parbati temple, Nachna kuthara, MP

3rd Stage

  • Continued features
    • Square temple
    • Pillared Approach
    • High platform
    • Covered Ambulatory
  • Flat roof discontinued
  • Concept of Shikhar Introduced - low & square Shikhar
  • Introduced Pachayatan Style = main shrine + 4 subsidiary shrines
  • Main shrine is rectangular
  • Crucified (+) ground plan
  • Precursor to nagara style
  • E.g
    • Dashavatar temple-Deogarh, UP,
    • Durga temple- Ahihole, Karnataka

4th Stage

  • Rectangular temple
  • Rest same as 4th stage
  • e.g - Sholapur, Maharashtra

5th Stage

  • Circular temple with shallow rectangular projections at four cardinal faces
  • e.g - Maniar matha-Rajgir, Bihar

Style of Temple Architecture

The Shilpa-Shastra recognizes 3 styles and its geographical distribution

  • Nagara Style - northern style
  • Dravida Style - southern style
  • Vesara Style - region between north and south India

Elements of Hindu Temple

  • Sanctum Sanctorum - Garbagriha - houses main diety
  • Mandapa - entrance; portico; hall to house large no of worshippers
  • Shikhara - pyramidal to curvilinear spire of Nagara Style
  • Vimana - the spire of Dravida Style
  • Amalaka - a stone disc-like structure at the top of the temple shikhara
  • Kalasha - topmost point of the temple above Amalaka
  • Antarala - a vestibule or transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple's main hall (mandapa)
  • Jagati - a raised platform for sitting and praying
  • Vahana - vehicle of the temple's main deity

Nagara School of Architecture

  • Successor of 3rd stage - so had all its features
  • Crucified ground plan
  • Square or rectangular temple
  • Raised Platform
  • Pillared approach
  • Presence of garbhagriha & mandapas
  • Panchayatan Style
  • Vertical walls divided into 3 vertical planes - Triratha - used to do sculptures
  • later pancharatha, saptaratha, navaratha came up
  • Types of Shikhara
    • Latina or Rekha Prasad = Square Base; walls curve inward to a point on the top
    • Phamasana = broader base; shorter height than Latina; slope upward on a straight line
    • Valabhi = rectangular base; roof-raising into a vaulted chamber; also called wagon vaulted roof
  • Shikhar end with amalak over which kalash is placed
  • Circumamblatory passage or pradakhshinapath around the sanctum sanctorum
  • General absence of boundary wall (present in Dravidian style)
  • Absence of tank(main feature of Dravidian Style)
Nagara Temple Architecture
Triratha, Pancharatha and Saptaratha

Sub Schools developed under Nagara Style

Odisha School
  • During 8th to 13th century in different parts of Kalinga empire
  • All features of nagara style are present
  • Exterior is lavishly decorated but the interior is plain
  • Shikhar is called as Deul - almost vertical till top then suddenly curves sharply inwards
  • Mandap(assembly hall) is called as Jagmohan
  • Instead of pillars iron girders were used
  • Temple had boundary walls
  • Erotic sculptures found on the wall of Konark Temple
  • Ground plan was square
  • E.g
    • Konark Temple / Sun Temple / Black Pagoda
    • Lingaraja Temple, Bhubaneshwar
    • Rajarani Temple, Bhubaneshwar
    • Jagannath Temple, Puri
Chandella / Khajuraho School
  • Developed by Chandel rulers
  • Both interior and exteriors are intricately decorated
  • Sculptures based on erotic themes from kamasutra
  • Temple has three Chambers
    • Garbhgriha
    • Mandap
    • Ardha Mandap
  • Shikhars in subsidiary shrines gives impression of a mountain range
  • Platform is relatively high
  • Made of sandstone
  • Panchayatan Style
  • E.g
    • Kandaria Mahadeo temple
    • Lakshmi Temple
Solanki / Maru Gurjar School
  • Gujarat and Rajasthan by Solanki Rulers
  • Unique features
    • Step tank called Surya Kund
    • Small temples in each step
    • Ceilings are carved to give an illusion of arch domes
    • Sun shines directly into the central shrine during equinoxes
    • Walls of central shrine are devoid of carvings
  • Material used = sandstone, black basaltic stone, marbles
  • E.g
    • Modhera Sun Temple,Gujarat
    • Dilwara Temple, Mt.Abu,RJ - Highest Jain Pilgrimage

Filed Under: Art & Culture

  • Go to page 1
  • Go to page 2
  • Go to Next Page »

Copyright © 2021 BureaucratONE