NCERT

Introduction

1. Broad Stages and Thrust of Human Geography

1. Early Colonial period - Exploration and description approach
   1. Imperial and trade interest
   2. Discovery and exploration of new area
   3. Encyclopedic  description of the area
   4. Formed an important aspect of the geographer's account.
2. Later Colonial period (Regional analysis)
   1. Elaborate description of all aspects of a region
   2. all the regions were part of a whole
   3. understanding the parts in totality would lead to an understanding of the whole

1. POPULATION Distribution, Density, Growth Composition

1. India second most populous country after China – 1.25 Bn
2. Distribution of Population

1. UP highest population followed by MH, BH, WB.
2. MH, BH, WB, AP, TN, MP , RJ, KN and GJ  account for about 76 % of the total pop
3. J & K (1.04%), Aru Pradesh (0.11%), UK (0.84%) in spite having large geographical area
4. uneven spatial distribution due to
   1. physical (climate, terrain, availability of water)
      1. North Indian Plains, deltas and Coastal Plains have higher proportion
         1. Rajasthan- dev of irri
         2. Jharkhand- availability of mineral & energy resources
         3. Peninsular States- dev of transport network have resulted in moderate to high concentration of pop in areas which were previously very thinly populated.
   2. socio-economic
   3. historical factors
5. Density of Population

1. persons per unit area
2. density of pop (2011) - 382 persons/sqkm (117 persons/sq km in 1951 to 382 persons/sqkm in 2011)
3. 17 persons per sq km in Arunachal Pradesh to 11,320 persons in the National Capital Territory of Delhi
4. Growth of Population

1. Two components - natural and induced
2. natural growth - assessing the crude birth and death rates
3. induced Gr - volume of inward and outward movement of people in any given area
4. annual gr rate of India's population is 1.64 per cent (2011).
5. Population Doubling Time - time taken by any population to double itself at its current annual growth rate.
6. last one century - four distinct phases of growth
7. Phase I (1901-1921)

1. Prd of stagnant /stationary phase of Gr (Coz Gr rate was very low even recording a -ve Gr rate during 1911-1921)
2. BR and DR were high keeping the rate of increase low
3. Poor health and medical services, illiteracy of people, inefficient distribution system of food and basic necessities responsible for high BR & DR
4. Phase II (1921-1951)

1. period of steady Pop Gr
2. improvement in health and sanitation throughout the country brought down the mortality rate
3. Better transport and communication system improved distribution system.
4. BR remained high in this Prd leading to higher Gr rate than previous phase (impressive at the backdrop of Great Economic Depression, 1920s and WW II)
5. Phase III (1951-1981)

1. period of pop explosion
2. caused by a rapid fall in mortality rate but high fertility rate of pop
3. avg annual Gr rate was as high as 2.2%.
4. In this Prd- dev activities were introduced through centralised planning process and eco started showing up ensuring the improvement of living condition of people
5. increased international migration bringing in Tibetans, Bangladeshis, Nepalies, Pak contributed to the high Gr rate.
6. Phase IV (post 1981 till present)

1. Gr rate - remained high but has started slowing down gradually
2. downward trend of crude birth rate is held responsible for such a pop Gr
3. affected by an increase in mean age at marriage, improved quality of life particularly edu of females
4. World Development Report that pop of India will touch 1,350 million by 2025.
5. Regional Variation in Population Growth

1. States like KL, KN, TN, AP, Odisha, Puducherry, Goa show a low rate of Gr not exceeding 20 % over the decade. Kerala registered lowest Gr rate -9.4 (lowest in the country)
2. continuous belt of states from W to E in the NW, N, and N-central parts of the country has relatively high Gr rate than S states comprising GJ, MH, RJ, Punjab, HY, UP, UK, MP, Sikkim, Assam, WB, BH, CG, and Jharkhand, Gr rate on avg remained 20-25 %
3. adolescents i.e., up to the age group of 10-19 years is about 20.9 per cent (2011)( youthful pop having high potentials)
4. National Youth Policy 2003 -overall development of our large youth and adolescent population, reinforcing the qualities of patriotism and responsible citizenship.

1. Population Composition
2. Rural – Urban Composition

1. 68.8 % of pop lives in village (2011).
2. India has 640,867 villages (Census 2011) out of which 597,608 (93.2 per cent) are inhabited villages
3. Bihar and Sikkim have very high percentage of rural population
4. Goa and Maharashtra have only little over half of their total population residing in villages
5. Union Territories, on the other hand, have smaller proportion of rural population except Dadra and Nagar Haveli (53.38 per cent).
6. urban population - 31.16 per cent but it is showing a much faster rate of growth over the decades due to enhanced eco dev and improvement in health and hygienic conditions.
7. almost in all states & UTs, - considerable increase of urban population- indicates both development of urban areas in terms of socio-economic conditions and increased rate of rural-urban migration.
8. Linguistic Composition

1. According to Grierson (Linguistic Survey of India, 1903 – 1928) there were 179 languages and as many as 544 dialects in country.
2. Modern India- 22 scheduled languages and a number of non-scheduled languages.
3. Linguistic Classification
4. major Indian languages belong to four language families, which have their sub-families and branches or groups
5. Religious Composition

1. One of most dominant forces affecting cultural and political life of most of Indians.
2. Hindus are distributed as a major group in many states (ranging from 70 - 90 % and above)
3. Muslims, largest religious minority, are concentrated in J & K, certain districts of WB and KL, UP , Delhi and i Lakshadweep. They form majority in Kashmir valley and Lakshadweep.
4. Christian pop is distributed mostly in rural areas of country. The main concentration is observed along the W coast around Goa, KL and also in the hill states of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Chotanagpur area and Hills of Manipur
5. Sikhs are mostly concentrated in relatively small area of the country, particularly in the states of Punjab, Haryana and Delhi.
6. Jains and Buddhists,smallest religious groups in India - only in selected areas of the country. Jains have major concentration in urban areas of RJ, GJ and MH, while Buddhists are concentrated mostly in MH. other areas of Buddhist majority are Sikkim, Aru Pradesh, Ladakh in J & K, Tripura, and Lahul and Spiti in HP
7. Composition of Working Population

1. population of India according to their economic status is divided into three groups
   1. main workers
   2. marginal workers
   3. non-workers
2. workers (both main and marginal) is only 39.8 (2011) leaving a vast majority of about 60 per cent as non-workers (indicates an economic status in which there is a larger proportion of dependent population)
3. In context of country like India, work participation rate tends to be higher in the areas of lower levels of eco dev since no of manual workers are needed to perform subsistence or near subsistence eco activities.
4. large proportion of primary sector workers compared to secondary and tertiary sectors
5. 54.6 per cent of total working population are cultivators and agricultural labourers, 3.8% of workers are engaged in household industries and 41.6 % are other workers including non-household industries, trade, commerce, construction and repair and other services
6. male workers out-number female workers in all the three sectors
7. number of female workers is relatively high in primary sector
8. proportion of workers in agri sector in India has shown a decline over the last few decades (58.2% in 2001 to 54.6% in 2011)
9. participation rate in secondary and tertiary sector has registered an increase
10. States like HP and Nagaland have very large shares of cultivators.
11. BH, AP, CG, Odisha, JK, WB and MP have higher proportion of agricultural labourers
12. Delhi, Chandigarh and Puducherry have a very large proportion of workers being engaged in other services
13. MIGRATION Types, Causes and Consequences
    1. Bhilai Steel Plant, Chhattisgarh

1. Indian Diaspora
2. First wave
3. In colonial period (Br period) millions of indentured labourers were sent to work as plantation workers

1. by British from UP, BH to Mauritius, Caribbean islands (Trinidad, Tobago and Guyana), Fiji and South Africa;
2. by French to Reunion Island, Guadeloupe, Martinique and Surinam
3. Dutch and by Portuguese from Goa, Daman, Diu to Angola, Mozambique.
4. All such migrations were covered under the time-bound contract known as Girmit Act (Indian Emigration Act). However, the living conditions of these indentured labourers were not better than the slaves.
5. Second wave

1. migrants ventured out into neighbouring countries in recent times as professionals, artisans, traders and factory workers, in search of economic opportunities to Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei and African countries, etc. and the trend still continues.
2. There was a steady outflow of India's semi-skilled and skilled labour in the wake of the oil boom in West Asia in the 1970s.
3. There was also some outflow of entrepreneurs, storeowners, professionals, businessmen to Western Countries.
4. Third wave

1. Comprising professionals like doctors, engineers (1960s onwards), software engineers, management consultants, financial experts, media persons (1980s onwards), and others migrated to countries such as USA, Canada, UK, Australia, New Zealand and Germany, etc.
2. These professional enjoy the distinction of being one of highly educated, the highest earning and prospering groups.
3. After liberalisation, in 90s education and knowledge–based Indian emigration has made Indian Diaspora one of the most powerful Diasporas in the world.

1. Migration

1. migration was recorded beginning from the first Census of India conducted in 1881 (This data were recorded on the basis of place of birth)
2. 1961 Census brought in two additional components-
   1. village or town
   2. duration of residence (if born elsewhere)
3. in 1971, additional information on
   1. place of last residence
   2. duration of stay at the place of enumeration were incorporated
4. 1981 Census reasons for migration were incorporated and modified in consecutive Censuses.
5. In the Census of India migration is enumerated on two bases :
   1. place of birth, if the place of birth is different from the place of enumeration (known as life-time migrant) 30 per cent
   2. place of residence, if the place of last residence is different from the place of enumeration (known as migrant by place of last residence). 31 per cent

1. Streams of Migration
   1. Internal migration (within the country)
2. rural to rural (R-R)
3. rural to urban (R-U)
4. urban to urban (U-U)
5. urban to rural (U-R)

1. females predominate the streams of short distance rural to rural migration in both types (Inter & Intra state) of migration
2. men predominate rural to urban stream of inter-state migration due to eco reasons.
3. International migration (out of the country and into the country from other countries)

1. India also experiences immigration from and emigration to neighbouring countries
2. 5 million person have migrated to India from other countries. (96 per cent came from Bangladesh (3.0 million) , Pakistan (0.9 million), Nepal (0.5 million), 0.16 million refugees from Tibet, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, and Myanmar)
3. emigration from India -- there are around 20 million people of Indian Diaspora, spread across 110 countries
4. Spatial Variation in Migration

1. states like MH, Delhi, GJ and HY attract migrants from other states such as UP, BH, etc.
2. MH occupied first place in the list with 2.3 million net in-migrants, followed by Delhi, GJ, HY
3. UP (-2.6 million) and BH(-1.7 million) had the largest no of net out-migrants from state.
4. Among the urban agglomeration (UA), Greater Mumbai received higher no of in migrants.
5. Causes of Migration

1. People, generally are emotionally attached to their place of birth. But millions of people leave their places of birth and residence
2. reasons two broad categories :
   1. push factor cause people to leave their place of residence or origin
      1. In India people migrate from rural to urban areas mainly due to poverty, high population pressure on the land, lack of basic infrastructural facilities like health care, education, etc
      2. natural disasters such as, flood, drought, cyclonic storms, earthquake tsunami, wars and local conflicts also give extra push to migrate
   2. pull factors attract people from different places
      1. better opportunities, availability of regular work and relatively higher wages. Better opportunities for education, better health facilities and sources of entertainment
3. work and employment have remained the main cause for male migration (38 per cent) while it is only 3% for females. Contrary to this, about 65 % of females move out from their parental houses following their marriage
4. Consequences of Migration

1. Migration is a response to the uneven distribution of opportunities over space. People tend to move from place of low opportunity and low safety to the place of higher opportunity and better safety.
2. This creates benefits and problems for areas, people migrate from and migrate to.
3. Consequences can be observed in economic, social, cultural, political and demographic terms
4. Economic Consequences

1. benefit for the source region is the remittance sent by migrants
2. Remittances from the international migrants are one of major sources of foreign exchange. In 2002, India received US$ 11 billion as remittances from international migrants.
3. PJ, KL and TN receive very significant amount
4. Remittances are mainly used for food, repayment of debts, treatment, marriages, children's education, agricultural inputs, construction of houses, etc.
5. Dev of slums in industrially developed states such as MH, GJ, KN, TN and Delhi is a negative consequence of unregulated migration within country
6. Demographic Consequences

1. leads to redistribution of pop within country
2. Age and skill selective out migration from rural area have adverse effect on rural demographic structure
3. High out migration from UK, RJ, MP and E-MH have brought serious imbalances in age and sex composition in these states. Similar imbalances are also brought in recipients states
4. Social Consequences

1. +ve
   1. Migrants act as agents of social change
   2. new ideas related to new tech, family planning, girl's edu, etc. get diffused from urban to rural areas through them
   3. Migration leads to intermixing of people from diverse cultures
   4. Evolution of composite culture and breaking through narrow considerations and widens up mental horizon of people.
2. -ve
   1. anonymity creates social vacuum and sense of dejection among individuals.
   2. Continued feeling of dejection may motivate people to fall trap to anti-social activities like crime and drug abuse.

1. Environmental Consequences

1. Overcrowding of people due to rural-urban migration has put pressure on the existing social and physical infra in urban areas (leads to unplanned Gr of urban settlement and formation of slums shanty colonies)
2. Due to over-exploitation of natural resources, cities are facing problem of depletion of GW, air pollution, disposal of sewage and management of solid wastes.
3. Others

1. Migration (even excluding marriage migration) affects status of women directly or indirectly.
2. rural areas-male selective out migration leaves their wives behind( puts extra physical as well mental pressure on women)
3. Migration of women either for edu or employment enhances their autonomy and role in eco but also increases their vulnerability.
4. If remittances are the major benefits of migration from the point of view of source region, loss of human resources particularly highly skilled people is most serious cost.
5. Market for advanced skills has become global market and most dynamic industrial economies are admitting and recruiting significant proportions of highly trained professionals from poor regions. Consequently, existing underdevelopment in source region gets reinforced.
6. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
   1. It is believed "Dev is freedom" which is often associated with modernisation, leisure, comfort and affluence.
   2. In present context, computerisation, industrialisation, efficient transport and communication network, large edu system, advanced and modern medical facilities, safety and security of indi, etc. are considered as symbols of dev
   3. Individuals, community, Govt measures its performance or levels of dev in relation to availability and access to some of these things. But, this may be partial and one-sided view of dev. It is often called western or euro-centric view of dev
   4. For a postcolonial country like India, colonisation, marginalisation, social discrimination and regional disparity, etc. show the other face of dev
   5. There are a few areas like the metropolitan centres and other developed enclaves that have all the modern facilities available to a small section of its population
   1. Human Development in India
   1. India is ranked 134 among 172 countries in terms of HDI. With composite HDI value of 0.547 India is grouped with countries showing medium human dev (UNDP 2011)
   2. Lack of sensitivity to historical factors like colonisation, imperialism and neo-imperialism, socio-cultural factors like human rights violation, social discrimination on the basis of race, religion, gender and caste, social problems like crimes, terrorism, and war and political factors like nature of the state, forms of the government (democracy or dictatorship) level of empowerment are some factors that are very crucial in determining the nature of human development.
   3. Using indicators selected by UNDP, Planning Commission of India also prepared Human Development Report for
   4. India. It used states and the Union Territories as the units of analysis. Subsequently, each state government also started preparing the state level Human Development Reports, using districts as the units of analysis. Although, the final HDI by the Planning Commission of India has been calculated by taking the three indicators, yet, this report also discussed other indicators like economic attainment, social empowerment, social distributive justice, accessibility, hygiene and various welfare measures undertaken by the state
   1. Indicators of Economic Attainments
   1. Rich resource base access to these resources by all (poor, down trodden, marginalized) is key to productivity, well-being and human dev.
   2. (GNP) and its per capita availability are taken as measures to assess resource base/ endowment of any country
   3. developed States like Maharashtra, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and Delhi that have per capita income more than Rs. 4,000 (figure at 1980-81 prices) per year and there are a large number of poorer States like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Jammu and Kashmir, etc. which have recorded per capita income less than Rs. 2,000
   4. developed states have higher per capita consumption expenditure as compared to the poorer states. It was estimated to be more than Rs. 690 per capita per month in States like Punjab, Haryana, Kerala, Maharashtra and Gujarat and below Rs. 520 per capita per month in States like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh
   5. States like Odisha and Bihar which have recorded more than 40 per cent of their population living below the poverty line. The States of Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland have more than 30 per cent of their population below poverty line.
   6. "Poverty is a state of deprivation. In absolute terms it reflects the inability of an individual to satisfy certain basic needs for a sustained, healthy and reasonably productive living
   7. Employment rate for educated youth is 25 per cent. Jobless growth and rampant unemployment are some of the important reasons for higher incidences of poverty in India.
   1. Indicators of a Healthy Life
   1. Life free from illness and ailment & living a reasonably long life span are indicative of a healthy life
   2. Availability of pre and post natal health care facilities in order to reduce infant mortality and post-delivery deaths among mothers, old age health care, adequate nutrition and safety of indi are some imp measures of a healthy and reasonably long life
   3. India has done well in some of health indicators like decline in DR from 25.1/thousand in 1951 to 8.1/thousand in 1999 and infant mortality from 148 /thousand to 70 during same period.
   4. Has increased life expectancy at birth from 37.1 years to 62.3 years for males and 36.2 to 65.3 years for females from 1951 to 1999.
   5. Brought down birth rate from 40.8 to 26.1 during the same years, but it still is much higher than many developed countries.
   6. India has recorded declining female sex ratio.
   7. with exception of KL, child sex ratio has declined in all states and it is most alarming in dev state of HY and PJ where it is below 800 female children/thousand male children. social attitude and scientific methods of sex-determination could be reason for this
   1. Indicators of Social Empowerment
   1. "Development is freedom".
   2. Freedom from hunger, poverty, servitude, bondage, ignorance, illiteracy and any other forms of domination is key to human dev
   3. Freedom is possible only with empowerment and participation of people in exercise of their capabilities and choices in society.
   4. Access to knowledge about society and environment are fundamental to freedom.
   5. Literacy is beginning of access to such a world of knowledge and freedom
   6. Facts
      1. Overall literacy in India is approximately 65. 4 per cent (2001) while female literacy is 54.16 per cent.
      2. Total literacy as well as female literacy is higher than national avg in most of states from south India
      3. There is state like BH which has very low (47.53 per cent) literacy and there are states like KL and Mizoram which have literacy rates of 90.92 and 88.49 %
   7. percentage of literates in rural areas and among marginalised sections of our society such as females, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, agri labourers, etc. is very low

1. Human Development Index in India

1. India has been placed among countries showing medium human dev
2. Planning Commission calculated human dev index by taking states and union territories as unit of analysis. KL with composite index value of 0.790 is placed at top rank followed by Delhi, HP, Goa and PJ.
3. KL - highest value in HDI largely due to impressive performance in achieving near 100% literacy
4. Levels of eco dev too play significant impacts on HDI. Eco developed states like MH, TN and PJ and HY have higher value of HDI
5. Regional distortions and social disparities which developed during colonial period continue to play an imp role in Indian eco, polity and society So Govt of India has made concerted efforts to institutionalise balanced devt with its main focus on social distributive justice through planned dev
6. Population, Environment and Development

1. Human dev is complex concept used in social sciences (Coz for ages it was thought that dev is a substantive concept & once it is achieved it will address all socio-cultural and envi ills of society)
2. Dev has brought improvement in quality of life but has increased regional disparities, social inequalities, discriminations, deprivations, displacement of people, abuse of human rights and undermining human values and envi degradation
3. UNDP in its Human Development Report 1993, tried to amend some of implicit biases & prejudices which were entrenched in concept of dev
   1. People's participation and their security were major issues
   2. Emphasized on progressive democratisation and increasing empowerment of people as min conditions for human dev.
   3. recognized greater constructive role of 'Civil Societies' in bringing about peace and human dev
   4. civil society should work for building up opinion for reduction in military expenditure, demobilization of armed forces, transition from defence to production of basic goods and services and particularly disarmament and reduction in nuclear warheads by developed countries
   5. peace and well-being are major global concerns
4. At the other extreme of this approach lie views expressed by Neo-Malthusians, environmentalists and radical ecologists
   1. for happy & peaceful social life proper balance between pop and resources is necessary condition
   2. According to them gap between resources and pop has widened after 18th century.
   3. There have been marginal expansion in resources of world in last 300 years but there has been phenomenal Gr in human pop.
   4. Dev has only contributed in increasing multiple uses of limited resources of world while there has been enormous increase in demand for these resources.
   5. Therefore prime task before any dev activity is to maintain parity between pop and resources.
5. Scholar like Sir Robert Malthus was 1st one to voice his concern about growing scarcity of resources as compared to human pop
6. unending pursuit for control of more and more resources by powerful and use of the same for exhibiting ones prowess is prime cause of conflicts as well as apparent contradictions between pop resource and dev
7. Gandhi in recent times advocated harmony and balance between two. He was quite apprehensive about on-going dev, the way industrialisation has institutionalised loss of morality, spirituality, self-reliance, non-violence and mutual co-operation and environment. In his opinion, austerity for individual, trusteeship of social wealth and non-violence are the key to attain higher goals in the life of an individual as well as that of a nation
8. His views were also re-echoed in
   1. the Club of Rome Report "Limits to Growth" (1972),
   2. Schumacher's book "Small is Beautiful" (1974),
   3. Brundtland Commission's Report "Our Common Future" (1987)
   4. "Agenda-21 Report of the Rio Conference" (1993).
9. HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
   1. Human Settlement - cluster of dwellings of any type or size where human beings live
   2. People erect houses and other structures and command some area or territory as their economic support-base.
   3. process of settlement inherently involves grouping of people and apportioning of territory as their resource base
   4. Settlements vary in size and type (range from a hamlet to metropolitan cities)
   5. With size, eco character and social structure of settlements changes and so do its ecology and technology
   6. Sparsely located small settlements are villages, specialising in agri or other primary activities. Rural settlements derive their life support/ basic eco needs from land based primary eco activities. Rural people are less mobile and therefore, social rln among them are intimate.
   7. There are fewer but larger settlements - urban settlements specialising in secondary and tertiary activities. They depend on processing of raw materials and manufacturing of finished goods and a variety of services. Cities act as nodes of eco Gr, provide goods and services not only to urban dwellers but also to the people of the rural settlements in their hinterlands in return for food and raw materials. way of life is complex and fast, and social relations are formal
   8. Rural and urban settlements differ in terms of social relationship, attitude and outlook.
   9. functional relationship between the urban and rural settlements takes place through transport and communication network 
   1. Types of Rural Settlement
      1. Clustered Settlements
      2. Semi-Clustered Settlements
      3. Hamleted Settlements
      4. Dispersed Settlements 
   2. Urban Settlements
      1. Evolution of Towns in India
      1. Ancient Towns
      2. Medieval Towns
      3. Modern Towns 
   3. Urbanisation in India
      1. Classification of Towns on the basis of Population Size 
   1. Functional Classification of Towns

Towns and cities specialise in certain functions and they are known for some specific activities, products or services. However, each town performs a number of functions.

1. On the basis of dominant or specialised functions, Indian cities and towns can be broadly classified as follows:
2. Administrative towns and cities
3. Towns supporting administrative headquarters of higher order are administrative towns, such as Chandigarh, New Delhi, Bhopal, Shillong, Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar, Gandhinagar, Jaipur Chennai, etc.
4. Industrial towns
5. Industries constitute prime motive force of these cities such as Mumbai, Salem, Coimbatore, Modinagar, Jamshedpur, Hugli, Bhilai, etc
6. Transport Cities
7. They may be ports primarily engaged in export and import activities such as Kandla, Kochchi, Kozhikode, Vishakhapatnam, etc. or hubs of inland transport such as Agra, Dhulia, Mughal Sarai, Itarsi, Katni, etc.
8. Commercial towns
9. Towns and cities specialising in trade and commerce are kept in this class. Kolkata, Saharanpur, Satna, etc. are some examples.
10. Mining towns
11. These towns have developed in mineral rich areas such as Raniganj, Jharia, Digboi, Ankaleshwar, Singrauli, etc.
12. Garrisson Cantonment towns
13. These towns emerged as garrisson towns such as Ambala, Jalandhar, Mhow, Babina, Udhampur
14. Educational towns
15. Starting as centres of education, some of the towns have grown into major campus towns such as Roorki, Varanasi, Aligarh, Pilani, Allahabad etc.
16. Religious and cultural towns
17. Varanasi, Mathura, Amritsar, Madurai, Puri, Ajmer, Pushkar, Tirupati, Kurukshetra, Haridwar, Ujjain came to prominence due to their religious/cultural significance.
18. Tourist towns
19. Nainital, Mussoorie, Shimla, Pachmarhi, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Udagamandalam (Ooty), Mount Abu are some of the tourist destinations.

Transport & Communication

1. Road
   1. 45 Lakh Km
   2. 85 % of passengers
   3. 70 % of freight
   4. Sheh shah suri
      1. Shahi (royal) / GT road (Indus valley to sonar valley)
      2. NH 1 Delhi - Amritsar
      3. NH 2 Amritsar - Kolkata
   5. Nagpur plan 1943 - Didn't materialize
   6. 20 year road plan 1961
      1. NH
         1. NHAI
      2. SH
      3. MDR
      4. RR
      5. Other roads
         1. BRO
2. Rail
   1. 1853 - Bombay - thane - 34 km
   2. Largest govt undertaking in the country
   3. 16 zones

International trade

1. India exports 2011
   1. Mnfd 68
   2. Crude  16
   3. Agri 10
   4. Ore & Minerals 4
   5. Others 1
2. India Imports
   1. 1950s & 1960s (Import substitution attempt failed)
      1. Food
      2. Capital goods
      3. Machinery & Equipment
   2. 1970s
      1. Food - green revolution - Import stopped
      2. Energy crisis of 1973 - Pet price increased - Import budget increased
      3. Import of Fertilizer & Petroleum dominated
      4. Other
         1. Machines
         2. Edible oil
         3. Special steel
         4. Chemicals
3. Ports
   1. Major - 12
      1. Central govt
      2. Handles 70 % of Indias traffic
   2. Minor - 185
      1. State Govt
4. Airways

Geographical perspective of selected issues and problems

1. Pollution
   1. Air
   2. Water
   3. Land
   4. Noise
2. Urban waste disposal
3. RURAL Urban migration
4. Slums
5. Land degradation

3.POPULATION COMPOSITION

1. Sex ratio - female/male * 100
2. World avg - 910
3. Latvia - 1187
4. UAE - 468
5. Age structure - no of people of different age groups
6. 15-59 - working age
7. Age sex pyramid
   1. Expanding population - pyramid shape
   2. Constant population - Bell  shape - tapered at top and bottom bcos of constant birth and death rate
   3. Declining population - narrow base and tapered top - declining population
8. Literacy rate
   1. Percentage of population above 7 years of age, who is able to read, write and have the ability to do arithmetic calculations with understanding
9. Occupational structure

5.PRIMARY ACITIVITIES

1. Dependent on natural resources - red collar workers
2. Nomadic herding
   1. Transhumance - gujjars, bakarwals, gaddis and bhotiyas
3. Subsistence agriculture
   1. Slash and burn
      1. Jhumming - NE states of India
      2. Milpa - central America and Mexico
      3. Ladang - Indonesia and Malaysia
4. Extensive commercial agriculture
   1. Eurasian - steppes
   2. Canadian and American - Prairies
   3. Argentina - Pampas
   4. South Africa - Velds
   5. Australian - Downs
   6. New Zealand - Canterbury
5. Mixed Farming
   1. Labour and technology intensive
6. Mediterranean agriculture
7. Viticulture
   1. Grape cultivation

1. Human Settlements
   1. Types of urban settlement
      1. Town
      2. City
      3. Mn City
      4. Conurbation
      5. Megalopolis

This post is incomplete and needs formating

.he Origin and evolution of the earth

• Origin of Universe - Big Bang Theory a.k.a expanding universe theory by Edwin Hubble
  • "Tiny ball" of singular atom with unimaginable small volume, infinite temperature and infinite density
  • Big bang happened before 13.7 billion years
  • Tiny ball expanded rapidly but now slowed
  • Some energy transformed into matter
  • Within 3 minutes atom formed
  • Within 3 lakh years temperature dropped to 4500K
  • Alternate theory is Hoyle's concept of steady state
• The Galaxy Formation
  • Uneven mass distribution lead to gravitational pull
  • This pull formed galaxies accumulation of hydrogen cloud called nebula
  • Diameter - 80000-150000 light years
  • Localised clump of hydrogen gas grows into starts - 5-6 billion years ago
• Formation of Planets
  • Gravity in stars form core
  1. Gas condenses into planetesimals over core
  • Large number of small planetesimals becomes fewer number of large bodies called planets
• Our solar system
  • 8 planets, 63 moons
  • Sun - 5-5.6 billion years ago
  • Planets - 4.6 billion years
  • Mercury, venus, earth and mars - inner planets and terrestrial
  • Jupiter, saturn, uranus, neptune - jovian or jupiter like or gaseous or outer planets
  • Why terrestrial planets solid
    • Close to sun - so hot - so gases condense easily
    • Solar winds ripped off gases
    • Smaller size - so low gravity - so can't hold gases
• The moon
  • Giant impact or the big splat
  • A body 1-3 times size of mars collided earth and a piece from earth formed moon
• Evolution of the Earth
  • Lithosphere - gravity - so pressure - so heat - so dense material sunk to core - outer cooled and solidified - differentiation
  • Atmosphere and hydrosphere
    • Stage 1 - loss of primordial atmosphere - H and He
    • Stage 2 - hot interior - degassing
    • Stage 3 - photosynthesis
  • 3.8 billion years ago life started

3.INTERIOR OF THE EARTH

• Exogenic and endogenic processes are constantly shaping the landscape
• Sources of info about the interior
  • Direct
    • Surface rocks and rocks from mining
    • Two major project - deep ocean drilling project and integrated ocean drilling project
    • Deepest drill at Kola, Arctic Ocean - 12km
    • Volcanic eruption
  • Indirect
    • Meteors
    • "Gravity anomaly" - greater at pole and lesser at equator
    • Magnetic field
    • Seismic activity
• Earthquake
  • Rock along fault lines overcomes the friction from overlying strata and moves apart causing release of energy.
  • The point where energy is released is focus or hypocentre
  • The point above is epicentre
• Earthquake waves
  •  lithosphere 200km
  • Seismograph records waves reaching surface
  • Two types
    • Body waves
      • P waves - fastest to arrive at surface/similar to sound wave/a.k.a primary wave/solid, liquid, gas
        • Parallel to propagation so density difference by squeezing and stretching
      • S waves - secondary wave/arrives at lag/solid only
        • Perpendicular to propagation in vertical plane so troughs and crust
    • Surface waves
      • Body waves interact with surface rocks to form surface waves
      • Most damaging
• Emergency of shadow zone
  • Where waves not reported
  • 105* - 145* from epicentre - for both P and S
  • 145* and beyond - no S but only P
• Types of earth quake
  • Tectonic - sliding of rock along a fault plane
  • Volcanic
  • Collapse - intense mining
  • Explosion - nuclear or chemical explosion
  • Reservoir induced earthquake
• Measuring Earthquakes
  • Magnitude scale - Richter scale - 1-10
  • Intensity scale - Mercalli - 1-12
• Frequency of earth quake
  • 8+ once in 1 or 2 year
  • Tiny types - every minute
• Structure of the earth
  • 

• The crust
  • Oceanic - 5km
  • Continental - 30km/ himalayas - 70km/denser than oceanic
  • Density - 3g/cm3
• The mantle
  • From moho's discontinuity to 2900km
  • Upper portion - astheno(weak)sphere -upto 400km - molten rock comes from here
  • Crust + upper mantle = lithosphere - 10-200km
  • 3.4g/cm3
• The core
  • Outer core liquid - 5g/cm3
  • Inner core solid  - 13g/cm3
  • NIFE
• Volcanos and Volcanic Landforms
  • Asthenosphere - magma comes out and becomes lava
  • Types

• Shield Volcanoes
  • Largest
  • Hawaiian volcanoes
  • Less explosive except when water enters
  • Basalt - fluid - so not steep
• Cinder cone
  • When lava fills the cone of shield volcano
• Composite  volcanoes
  • Cooler than basalt
  • Explosive
  • Ashes and pyroclastic material forms layer called composite
• Caldera
  • Most explosive - so collapse on themselves
  • Magma chamber is huge and close
• Flood basalt Provinces
  • Highly fluid basalt
  • Deccan traps
  • 50 m thick and 100 km flow
• Mid-oceanic Ridge Volcanoes
  • 70000km long ridges
• Volcanic land forms
  • Intrusive forms - cools within crust

• Cooling of lava - ingenious rock
  • Cools on surface - volcanic rocks
  • Cools in crust - plutonic rocks
• Plutonic rocks
  • Batholiths
    • Large
    • Deep
    • Granite
  • Lacoliths
    • Large
    • Flat base
    • Connected by conduit from below
    • Karnataka plateau granite
  • Lapolith
    • Saucer shape
    • Concave to sky
  • Phacoliths
    • Wavy rocks at syncline or anticline
  • Sill or sheet
    • Near horizontal
    • Thick - sills
    • Thin - sheet
  • Dykes
    • Vertically solidifies as the lawa rise
    • Feeder for MH deccan trap

4.DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANS AND CONTINENTS

• 71% of earth oceans
• Continental drift theory 1912
  • Alfred Wegener
  • PANGAEA means all earth
  • PANTHALASSA means all water
  • PANGAEA into LAURASIA and GONDWANALAND
• Evidence in support of the continental Drift
  • The matching of continents (jig-saw-fit)
  • Rocks of same age across the oceans
  • Tillite - a sedimentary rock formed out of deposits if glacier - seen across continents
  • Placer deposits
    • Gold deposit in Ghana coast
    • Gold bearing veins in Brazil
  • Distribution of fossil
    • Lemurs in india, madagascar and africa
    • Mesosaurus in south africa and brazil
  • Forces for drifting - but false
    • Polar-fleeing force due to rotation of earth
    • Tidal force
• Post drift studies
  • Convectional current theory
    • 1930 - Arthur Holmes
    • Convectional current due to radioactive elements causing thermal differences in mantle
  • Mapping of ocean floor
    • Similarities in magnetism of rocks equidistant from ridges
    • Presence of ridges along continental margins
  • Ocean floor configuration
    • Continental margins
      • Transition between continental shores and deep-sea basins
      • Includes continental shelf, slope, rise and deep oceanic trenches
    • Abyssal Plains
      • Between continental margins and mid-oceanic ridges
    • Mid-Oceanic Ridges
  • Concept of sea floor spreading by HESS

• Plate Tectonics
  • Convectional theory + sea floor spreading
  • Continental or oceanic
  • Crust + upper mantle
  • 7 major and 7 minor
    • Major - Antarctica, North America, South America, Pacific plate, India-Australia-new zealand plate, Africa, Eurasia
    • Minor - Cocos, Nazca, Arabian, Philippine, caroline, fuji
• Types of plate boundaries
  • Divergent Boundaries - new crust - mid-oceanic ridge
  • Convergent Boundaries - subduction zone
    • Oceanic - continental plate
    • Oceanic -Oceanic plate
    • Continental - continental
  • Transform Boundaries
    • Crust neither destroyed or produced
• Rate of plate movement
  • Arctic ridge 2.5cm/yr
  • East pacific Rise near Easter Island 15cm/yr
• Force for the plate movement
  • Due to radioactive decay and residual heat convection cell beneath solid plate
  • Arthurs Holmes said 1st
• Movement of Indian plate
  • 200 million year ago started
  • 40-50 million year ago collided

5.MINERAL AND ROCKS

• 98% crust is oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium - in same order
• Hardness
  1. 1.Talc
  2. 2.Gypsum
  3. 3.Calcite
  4. 4.Fluorite
  5. 5.apatite
  6. 6.feldspar - half the earth/ceramic and glass making
  7. 7.quartz - part of granite/radar and radio
  8. 8.topaz
  9. 9.Corundum
  10. 10.diamond
• Other minerals
  • Pyroxene - 10% of crust/meteorites
  • Amphibole - 7%/asbestos
  • Mica - electrical instrument
  • Olivine - jewellery
• Metallic Minerals
  • Precious metals - gold, silver, platinum
  • Ferrous metal - iorn
  • Non- ferrous - copper, lead, zinc, tin, aluminium
• Non-Metallic Minerals
  •  sulphur, phosphates and nitrates
  • Cement is a mixture of non-metallic minerals
• Rocks
  • Aggregate of one or more mineral
  • Feldspar and quartz are the most common mineral in rocks
  • Petrology is science of rocks
• Types
  • Igneous - magma and lawa solidifies
  • Primary rocks
  • Outside - sudden cooling - smooth and small grains
  • Inside - slow cooling - large and big grains
  • Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt, volcanic breccia and tuff
• Sedimentary
  • deposits through compaction - lithification
  • Mechanically formed - sand stone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess
  • Organically formed - geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal
  • Chemically formed - chert, limestone, halite, potash
• Metamorphic Rocks
  • PVT
  • Recrystallisation and reorganisation
  • 2 types
    • Contact metamorphism
    • Regional metamorphism
  • Foliation or lineation
  • Banding
  • 2 types
    • Foliated
    • Non-foliated
  • Gneissoid, granite, syenite, slate, schist, marble, quartzite
• Rock cycle

6.GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES

• Energy through radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction and primordial heat
• Endogenic - constructive
  • Diastrophism
    • Orogenic - mountain building through folding
    • Epeirogenic - continental building  through uplift
    • Earthquake
    • Plate tectonics
    •  
  • volcanism
• Exogenic - destructive - wearing down or gradation by geomorphic agents and geomorphic process
  • Denudation
    • Process - weathering, mass movement, erosion/transportation
    • Driving force - gravitational/molecular stresses/chemical and kinetic
    • Weathering
      • Chemical
        • Solution - mild acids
        • Carbonation - carbonate and bicarbonate
        • Hydration
        • Oxidation and reduction
      • Physical and mechanical
        • gravitational
        • Temperature
        • Pressure

7.LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION

• Small to medium tracts or parcels of the earth's surface are called landforms
• Several related landforms together makeup landscapes or large tracts of earths surface
• 2 imp aspects of evolution of landforms - deposition and erosion
• Geomorphic agents
  • Running water
    • Overland flow as a sheet
    • Linear flow as streams and rivers in valleys

Movement of ocean water

Movement of ocean water is influenced by

• temperature salinity density Sun moon wind

biodiversity and conservation

Facts about species

• total number of species is between 2 million to 10 million
• The average of life the species is between 1 and 4 million
• 99% of the species who have ever lived on earth have been extinct

INDIA - SIZE AND LOCATION

Location

• 8*4' N and 37*6'N
• 68*7'E and 97*25'E
• Tropic of cancer - 23*30' N divides India into almost 2 half

Size

• 3.28 million sq.km
• 2.4% of world area
• 7th largest - Russia, Canada, USA, China, Brazil, Australia and India 
• Land boundary 15,200km
• Coast line - 7500km
• East to west time lag - 2 hrs
• Standard meridian passes through - Mirzapur,UP - 82*30'E

Note: Suez canal opened in 1869 and reduced distance between India and Europe by 7000km

India's neighbours

• 29 states and 7 Ut's
• 7 neighbours in north
• Palk strait and Gulf of Mannar between India and Srilanka

Facts

• States through which Tropic of cancer passes through - Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura and Mizoram
• Kavarati is the capital of Lakshadweep

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA

• Movement of plates result in building up of stresses within the plate and the continental rocks above, leading to folding, faulting and volcanic activity
• 3 types of plate movement
  • Convergent boundary
  • Divergent boundary
  • Transform boundary
• Most volcanoes are located at plate margin
• Oldest landmass (the peninsula part) was a part of the GONDAWANA LAND
• Gondwana land - Southern part of the ancient super continent PANGEA with Angara Land in the norther part
  • India
  • Australia
  • South Africa
  • South America
  • Antarctica
• Indo-Australian plate separates from Gondwana land and collides with Eurasian plate.
• The sedimentary rocks which are accumulated in the geosyncline knows as the TETHYS were folded to form the mountain system of western Asia and Himalayas - Tethys sea is the Himalayas now
• Basin is formed in this process and the Basin is filled by alluvial from Himalayas and Deccan plateau forming NORTHERN PLAINS
• Peninsular plateau is the oldest and most stable
• The Himalayas and the northern plane is the recent formation and hence unstable

MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS

1. The Himalayan Mountain
2. The Northern Plains
3. The peninsular Plateau
4. The Indian Desert
5. The coastal Plains
6. The Island

THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS

• Fold mountains
• Young mountains
• Loftiest and rugged
• Forms an Arc
• 2400km long
• 400km wide in Kashmir
• 150km wide in Arunachal Pradesh
• Altitudinal variation is greater in the eastern half
• 3 parallel range and number of valleys between them
  1. Northern most - Great or Inner Himalayas or Himadri
     • Most continuous
     • Loftiest - avg height 6000m
     • Asymmetrical fold
     • Core is composed of granite
     • Perennially snow bound
  2. Himachal or Lesser Himalayas
     • Most rugged
     • Highly compressed and altered rocks
     • 3700m - 4500m
     • Avg width - 50km
     • Imp ranges
       • Pir panjal range - longest
       • Dhaula Dar
       • Mahabharat ranges
     • Valley
       • Kashmir valley
       • Kangra, HP
       • Kulu  valley,HP
  3. Shiwaliks
     • 10-50km width
     • 900-1100m
     • Unconsolidated sediments brought by the Himalayan rivers
  4. DUN
     • Longitudinal valley lying between lesser Himalayas and Shiwaliks are known as DUN
     • Famous Duns
       • Dehra Dun
       • Kotli Dun
       • Patli Dun
• Division based on regions
  • Between Indus and satluj
    • Punjab Himalayas or
    • Kashmir and Himachal Himalayas
  • Between Satluj and Kali
    • Kumaon Himalayas
  • Between Kali and Tista
    • Nepal Himalayas
  • Between Tista and Dihang
    • Assam Himalayas
  • Beyond Dihang gorge
    • Himalayas bend sharply and forms Pruvachal or The Eastern Himalayas
      • Comprises of Patkai Hills, Naga Hills, manipur Hills and Mizo Hills
    • Made of strong sandstones

 THE NORTHERN PLAIN

• Result of interplay between 3 major river system
  • The Indus
  • The Ganga
  • The Brahmaputra
• Plain is formed of Alluvial soil
• 3 sections
  • Western part - Punjab Plain - Indus and its tributaries - Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Satluj 
    • Mostly lies in Pakistan
    • Dominated by Doab - do means two and ab means river (punj means 5 and ab means river)
  • Ganga Plains
    • Extend between Ghaggar and Teesta rivers
  • Brahmaputra Plains
    • Assam
• Variation of relief feature
  • Bhabar
    • Pebbles parallel to shiwaliks
    • All the streams disappear in this bahabar belt
  • Terai
    • Streams reappear and create a wet, swampy and marshy region called terai
    • Thickly forested with full of wildlife - but now cleared
    • Dudhwa National park
  • Bhangar
    • Largest part of northern plain
    • Formed of older alluvium
    • Calcareous deposits known as Kankar
    • Newer deposits are known as Khadar

THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU

• Table land composed of Old crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks
• Has broad and shallow valley and rounded hills
• 2 broad division
  1. Central highlands
     • Part that is lying to north of the Narmada river covering major a major area of the Malwa Plateau
     • Wider in the west and narrower in the east
     • Chambal, Sind, Betwa and Ken is from southwest to northeast
     • Eastward extension = Budelkhan and Baghelkhand
     • Further eastward extension = Chotanagpur plateau drained by Damodar river  
  2. Deccan Plateau 
     • Triangular landmass south of river Narmada
     • Higher in the west and slopes towards east
     • Satpura range in north
     • Mahadev range and Kaimur hills the Maikal range in Eastern extensions 
     • Meghalaya, Karbi-Anglong Plateau and North Cachar Hills = North Eastern Extension
     • West to east hill ranges = Garo, Khasi , Jaintia Hills
     • Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats mark the western and eastern edges
     • Western Ghats - continuous
       • Thal Ghats - MH
       • Bhor - MH
       • PalGhats - KL
       • Higher than eastern Ghats - 900-1600m
       • Hight increase from north to south
       • Anai Mudi (2700m) - highest
       • Doda Betta
     • Eastern ghats
       • 600m
       • Mahanadi to Nigiris
       • Mahendragiri (1500m) highest
       • Shevroy Hills
       • Javadi hills
     • Black soil area of Deccan trap - Volcanic origin or Igneous
     • Aravali Hills - Western and northwestern margins of Peninsular plateau - extend from Guj to Delhi

THE INDIAN DESERT

• Desert lies towards western margin of Aravali Hills
• 150mm per year Rain fall
• Luni is the only large river in this region
• Barchans crescent shaped dunes - Jaisalmer has a group of barchans

THE COASTAL PLAINS

1. WESTERN COAST
   • Between Western ghats and Arabian sea
   • Narrow
   • 3 sections
     • Konkan - Mumbai to Goa - Northern Part
     • Kannad Plain - central part
     • Malabar coast - southern part
2. EASTERN COAST
   • Broader
   • Northern Circar - Northern part
   • Coromandel  Coast - southern part
   • Large rivers
     • Mahanadi
     • Godavari
     • Krishna
   • Chilika Lake - Largest salt water lake in India - Odisha - south of Mahanadi  Delta

ISLAND

1. Lakshadweep
   • Coral island
     • 3 types
       • Barrier reefs - The Great Barrier reef of Australia
       • Fringing reef
       • Atolls - circular or horse shoe shaped coral reefs
   • 1973 - Laccadive to Lakshadweep
   • Kavaratti capital
   • Pitti Island is uninhabited and has Bird Sanctuary
2. A&N
   • North - Andaman
   • South - Nicobar
   • India's only active volcano is in Barren Island of A&N
3. Majuli(Assam) is the largest inhabited riverine island In the world

Closing statement

• Mountains - sources of water and forest wealth
• Northern Plains - granaries of the country
• Plateau - storehouse of mineral and plays crucial role in Industrialisation of the country 

DRAINAGE

• Drainage pattern
  • Dendritic - when river channel follows the slope of the terrain - tributaries resembles trees and hence the name
  • Trellis - river joined by its tributaries at right angle - develops where hard and soft rock exists parallel to each other
  • Rectangular - develops on strongly jointed rocky terrain
  • Radial - central peak and dome structure

• Area drained by single river is called drainage basin
• Any elevated area that separate two drainage basin is called water divide
• World's largest drainage basin is Amazon River

• Indian rivers are grouped
  • The Himalayan river
  • The peninsular rivers
• The Himalayan river
  • Mostly perennial
  • Two major
    • Indus
    • Brahmaputra
• The Indus River system
  • Rises in Tibet near lake Mansarowar
  • Enters Ladakh in J&K and forms picturesque gorge
  • Tributaries
    • Zaskar
    • Nubra
    • Shyok
    • Hunza
  • Flows through Baltistan and Gilgit and emerges from the mountain at Attock
  • Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum join together to join Indus at Mithankot , Pakistan
  • 1/3rd of Indus river basin is India
  • 2900km - one of the longest
  • Indus Water Treaty - 1960 - 20% of Indus water to India  
• The Ganga River System
  • Headwaters of Ganga = [Bhagirathi = fed by Gangotri Glacier] + Alaknanda at Devaprayag at UK
  • At Haridwar ganga emerges from Mountain to the plains
  • Dendritic pattern
  • 2500km
  • Tributaries
    • Himalayan
      • Yamuna - Yamunotri Glacier - right bank - meets at Allahabad
      • Ghaghara - Nepal Himalayas
      • Gandak - Nepal Himalayas
      • Kosi - Nepal Himalayas -
    • Peninsular upland - rise from semi-arid areas so not much water
      • Chambal
      • Betwa
      • Son
  • Farakka,WB - northern most point of Ganga delta
    • Ganga bifurcates here
      • Bhagirathi
      • Hooghly
    • Enters Bangladesh and further downstream it is called Meghna
  • Delta formed id Sundarbans Delta
  • Ambala(water divide = Indus & Ganga) to Sundarbans - gentle slope of 300m or 1800km/300m = 1 m every 6km = so Meanders
• The Brahmaputra River system
  • Rises in Tibet east of Mansarowar Lake close to sources of Indus and Satluj
  • Tsang Po in Tibet and Jamuna in Bangladesh
  • Slightly longer than Indus
  • Most of the course lies outside India
  • U turn on reaching Namcha Barwa (7757)
  • Enters Arunachal Pradesh and called as DIHANG
  • Dihang + Lohit + other tributaries = Brahmaputra
  • Low volume and less silt in Tibet but more volume and more silt in India bcos of more rainfall in NE
• The Peninsular river
  • East Flowing
    • Mahanadi
      • Highlands of Chhattisgarh
      • 860km
      • Covers MH, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Odisha 
    • Godavari
      • Largest peninsular river - so a.k.a DAKSHIN GANGA
      • Rises from Western Ghats in NASIK
      • 1500km
      • Covers MH(50% basin), MP, Odisha and AP
      • Tributaries
        • Purna
        • Wardha
        • Pranhita
        • Manjra
        • Wainganga
        • Penganga
    • Krishna
      • Rise at Mahabaleshwar
      • 1400km
      • Tributaries
        • Tungabhadra
        • Koyana
        • Ghatprabha
        • Musi
        • Bhima
      • Covers
        • MH, Karnataka, AP
    • Kaveri Basin
      • Rises at Brahmagri  range
      • Reaches BOB in Cuddalore
      • 760km
      • Tributaries
        • Amaravati
        • Bhavani
        • Hemavati
        • Kabini
      • Covers
        • TN, Karnataka, Kerala
      • Note : Kaveri makes 2nd biggest waterfall at Sivasamudram in Karnataka 
    • Others
      • Damoder
      • Brahmani
      • Baitarni
      • Subarnrekha
  • West flowing
    • Narmada
      • Amarkantak hills, MP
      • Trellis pattern
      • Forms Estuaries
      • Flows through rift valley or trough
      • Marble Rocks near Jabalpur where Narmada flows through a deep gorge
      • Dhuadhar falls
      • Cover MP and GJ
    • Tapi
      • Rises in Satpura ranges, Betul district, MP
      • Flows parallel to Narmada in rift valley or trough
      • Shorter than Narmada
      • Covers MP, GJ, MH
      • Forms estuaries
    • Others
      • Except Narmada and Tapi no other west flowing river forms Estuaries
      • Sabarmati
      • Mahi
      • Bharathpuzha
      • Periyar
      • Sharavati
        • Jog falls - Biggest in India

LAKES

• Most fresh water lakes are glacial origin
• Dal Lake, J&K 
  • Jewel in the crown of Kashmir
  • Srinagar's Jewel
  • House of boats and Shikaras
• Wular Lake, J&K
  • Result of tectonic activity in Himalayas
  • Largest fresh water lake
• Nainital Lake
  • Fresh water lake
  • Crescent or Kidney shaped
• Kolleru Lake
  • Not the largest Fresh water lake
• Pulicat Lake
  • 2nd largest brackish lake
• Loktak Lake
  •  Largest fresh water lake in NE, Manipur
• Chilika Lake
  • Odisha
  • Largest Lagoon
  • 2nd Largest Lagoon in the world
• Lagoons
  • Chilika Lake
  • Pulicat Lake
• Sambar Lake, RJ
  • Largest inland salt water lake
• Artificial Lakes as a result of Damming
  • Guru Gobind Sagar Lake of Bhakra Nangal Project
  • Kodaikanal Lake
  • Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar - Largest artificial lake
  • Barapani Lake
  • Nagarjuna Sagar
  • Rana Pratap Sagar
  • Bhimtal lake
  • Hirakund Lake
• Lakes of large extent
  • Caspian sea
  • Dead sea
  • Aral Sea
• Fresh water lakes
  • Bhimtal
  • Nainital
  • Loktak
  • Barapani

NATIONAL RIVER CONSERVATION PLAN (NRCP)

• Ganga Action Plan GAP
  1. Phase 1 - 1985-2000
  2. Phase 2

CLIMATE

• Climate is the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a long period of time (30 years)
• Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point of time
• Climate of India is defined as monsoon type
• Monsoon comes from Arabic word Mausim
• 6 major controls of climate
  • Latitude
  • Altitude
  • Pressure and Wind system
  • Distance from the sea( continentality ) 
  • Ocean currents
  • Relief features
• Pressure and Winds
  • Pressure and surface winds
  • Upper air circulation
  • Western cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclones
  • Ferrel's Law
    • Deflection of wind towards right and left in northern and southern hemisphere is called as Ferrel's  Law
    • A.k.a Coriolis force
  • What is monsoon and why India is not desert

NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILD LIFE

• TYPES OF VEGETATION
  1. Tropical Evergreen Forests
     • Heavy rainfall - 200cm
     • Short dry season
     • 60 metres high trees
     • Multi-layered vegetation
     • Imp trees
       • Ebony
       • Mahogany
       • Rosewood
       • Rubber
       • Cinchona
     • Common animals
       •  elephants
       • Monkey
       • Lemur
       • Deer
       • One horned rhinoceros of Assam and WB
  2. Tropical Deciduous Forests
     • Widespread forest in India
     • 200cm-70cm rainfall
     • Shed leaves 6-8 weeks in dry summer
     • On basis of water availability
       • Moist Deciduous - 200cm-100cm
         • Mostly in Eastern part of the country
         • NE
         • Jharkhand
         • West Orissa
         • Chhattisgarh
         • Eastern slopes of Western Ghats
         • Trees
           • Teak is the most dominant
           • Bamboos
           • Sal
           • Shisham
           • Sandalwood
           • Khair
           • Kusum
           • Arjun
           • Mulberry
       • Dry Deciduous - 100cm-70cm
         • Rainier parts of peninsular plateau
         • Bihar
         • UP
         • Trees
           • Teak
           • Sal
           • Peepal
           • Neem
         • Large part of this is cleared for human needs
     • Animals
       • Lion
       • tiger
       • Pig
       • Deer
  3. The thorn Forests and Scrubs
     • Less than 70cm rain
     • Places
       • GJ
       • RJ
       • MP
       • Chhattisgarh
       • UP
       • Haryana
     • Trees - scattered and long rooted/stems are succulent to conserve water/leaves are thick and small to minimize evaporation
       • Acacias
       • Palms
       • Euphorbias
       • Cacti
     • Animals
       • Rats
       • Rabbits
       • Fox
       • Wolf
       • Tiger
       • Lion
       • Wild ass
       • Horse
       • Camels
  4. Montane Forests
     • Mountainous region
     • 1000-2000m
       • Wet temperate forest
       • Evergreen broadleaf trees
         • Oaks
         • Chestnuts
     • 1500-3000m
       • Temperate forest
       • Coniferous trees
         • Pine
         • Deodar
         • Silver fir
         • Spruce
         • Cedar
       • Southern slopes of Himalayas and NE
     • 3600m and above
       •  Alpine vegetation
       • Silver fir
       • Junipers
       • Pines
       • Birches
     • At higher altitudes
       • Tundra vegetation
       • Mosses and lichens
     • Animals
       • Kashmir stag
       • Spotted dear
       • Wild sheep
       • Jack
       • Rabbit
       • Tibetan antelope
       • Yak
       • Snow leopard
       • Squirrels
       • Shaggy horn wild ibex
       • Bear
       • Rare red panda
       • Sheep and goats with thick hair
  5. Mangrove forests
     • Deltas of
       • Ganga
       • Mahanadi
       • Krishna
       • Godavari
       • Kaveri
     • Trees
       • Sundari Trees
         • Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta
         • Hard wood
       • Palm
       • Coconut
       • Keora
       • Agar
     • Royal Bengal Tiger
     • Gharials
     • Turtles
     • Crocodiles
     • Snakes
• Wild Life
  • 90000 animal species
  • 2000 bird species - 13% of world
  • 2600 fish - 12% of world
  • 5-8 % amphibians, reptiles and mammals
  • 47000 plant species - 10% of world
  • 15000 flowering plants - 6% of world
  • Notable animals
    • Elephants - Assam, Karnataka and Kerala
    • One horned Rhinoceroses - Assam, WB
    • Wild Ass and Camel - Rann of Kachchh and Thar Desert
    • Indian Bison, nilgai(blue bull), chousingha(4 horned antelope), Gazel, deer and monkeys
    • Lion - Gir Forest - Last remaining habitat of the Asiatic Lion
    • Tigers - MP, Sundarbans and Himalayan Region
    • Yak, Tibetan Antelope, Bharal(blue sheep), wild sheep, Kiang(Tibetan Wild Ass), ibex, bear, snow leopard, red panda - Ladakh
    • Turtles, crocodiles and gharials
• Biosphere reserves
  • 18 Biosphere reserve - Out of which 11 are world network of Biosphere reserves
    1. Nilgiri, KL, KR, TN
    2. Gulf of Mannar, TN
    3. Sunderban, WB
    4. Nanda Devi,UK
    5. Nokrek
    6. Pachmarhi
    7. Similipal
    8. Achanakmar-Amarkantak
    9. Great Nicobar
    10. Agasthyamala
    11. Khangchendzonga - 2018
• Project
  • Project tiger
  • Project Rhino
  • Project Great Indian Bustard
• 104 National Parks
  • Kuno national park, MP - 2018
  • Manas National park, Assam - 1990 - UNESCO World heritage site
  • Nokrek National Park, Meghalaya - 1986 - UNESCO World heritage site
  • Great Himalayan National Park, Himachal Pradesh - 1984 - UNESCO World heritage site
  • Sundarbans National Park - West Bengal - 1984 - UNESCO World heritage site
  • Valley of Flowers National Park - Uttarakhand - 1982 - UNESCO World heritage site
  • Nanda Devi National Park - Uttarakhand         - 1982 - UNESCO World heritage site
  • Hemis National Park - Jammu and Kashmir - 1981 - largest national Park
  • Khangchendzonga National Park - Sikkim - 1977 - UNESCO World heritage site
  • Jim Corbett National park, UK - 1936 - 1st established
• 544 Wild life sanctuaries
• Wet Lands
  • Rann of Kachchh - Flamingo

1. 6th NCERT Summary
2. 7th NCERT Summary
3. 8th NCERT Summary
4. 9th NCERT Summary
5. 10th NCERT Summary
6. 11th NCERT Summary
   1. Fundamentals of Physical Geography Summary
   2. India - Physical Environment Summary
7. 12th NCERT Summary
   1. Fundamentals of Human Geography Summary
   2. India, people, Economy Summary

1 The Earth in the Solar System

• Sun, Moon and all those objects shinning in sky are called celestial bodies.
• Fortnight 14 days.
• Patterns formed in sky are called constellation.
• Ursa Major or Big Bear;
• Saptarishi (Seven sages) – Seven Stars – part of Ursa Major – most easily recognisable.
• North Star=Pole Star; find it with the help of saptarshi.
• Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus have rings (belts of small debris) can be seen from powerful telescope.
• Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars Inner planets (rock made); Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
• planet(moons) = earth(1), mars(2), Jupiter(16), Saturn(18), Uranus(17),Neptune(8)
• Sun 150 Million Kms
• Mercury 88 days to revolve around the sun
• Venus – Earth's Twin(shape and size)
• Pluto – Dwarf planet (other dwarf planet ceres,2003 UB313)
• Earth – 5^th largest planet ; Geoid shape earth like ; 2/3^rd water covered – looks blue from outer space so BLUE Planet ; 150 million Km from sun
• Moon – 3.8 lakh Km from the earth; 27 days to revolve around earth and same time to complete to one spin so we see only one side of the moon; 1/4^th diameter of earth.
• Milky way galaxy=Akash Ganga
• Earth<solar system<milky way galaxy<universe
• Meteoroids – rock pieces moving around the sun
• Asteroid found between mars and Jupiter - parts of a planet which exploded many years back.

2 Globe : Latitudes and Longitudes

• Globe is true model (miniature form) of the earth.
• Parallels of Latitudes – Parallel circles from equator up to the poles.
• Equator 0° latitude
• By measuring the angle of the pole star we can know the latitude if your place
• Tropic of cancer - 23½°N
• Tropic of Capricorn - 23½°S
• Arctic circle - 66½°N
• Antarctic circle - 66 ½° S

• Mid – day sun overhead at least once in year on all latitudes in between tropic of cancer and Capricorn
• Torrid zone – maximum heat; Temperate zone – moderate temperature; Frigid zones – very cold(sun never rises above the horizon)
• Prime meridian - 0° longitude passing through Greenwich where British Royal Observatory is located
• East of Greenwich ahead; west of it behind.
• 1° = 4 minutes; 15° = 15x4=60 min=1 hour (numerical)
• The earth rotates 360° in about 24 hours, which means 15° an hour or 1° in four minutes. Thus, when it is 12 noon at Greenwich, the time at 15° east of Greenwich will be 15 × 4 = 60 minutes, i.e., 1 hour ahead of Greenwich Time, which means 1 p.m. But at 15° west of Greenwich, the time will be behind Greenwich time by one hour, i.e., it will be 11.00 a.m. Similarly, at 180°, it will be midnight when it is 12 noon at Greenwich.

• Indian standard time (IST) 82½°E Standard Meridian of India; Russia 11 standard time zones.
• 1 hr 45 min time difference between local time of Dwarka in Gujrat to Dibrugarh in Assam.
• POINT ON MAP: Chandrapur MH (Ind), Belo Horizonte Brazil(S Amer), Dhubri in Assam, Tonga Islands (Pacific Ocean), Mauritius Island in (Indian Ocean)

3 Motions of the Earth

• Axis of earth makes 66½° with its orbital plane.
• Circle that divides the day from night is circle of illumination.

Maps

• Map – representation of earth surface or a part on the flat surface.
• Three types of maps
  1. Physical or relief map – mountains, plateaus, rivers, oceans
  2. Political map – cities, towns, villages, states, countries
  3. Thematic map - roads maps, rainfall maps, distribution of forests, industries
• Three components of maps
  1. Distance – Map(small scale);plan(large scale)
  2. Direction – cardinal points(east, east, north, south);intermediate directions (NE, NW, SE, SW)
  3. Symbols – conventional symbols ae internationally agreed use of symbols
• Sketch – rough drawing without scale
• Plan – drawing of small area on a large scale

5 Major Domains of the Earth

• Lithosphere – solid portion of earth-lithos means stones in Greek – 29% land
• Atmosphere – gaseous layer – atmos means vapour in Greek
• Hydrosphere – water surface –hudor means water - 71% water
• Biosphere – narrow zone where we find land, water, and air together which contains all forms of life –bios means life in Greek
• Two main divisions
  1. Land mass – continents
  2. Water bodies – ocean basins
• Mt.Everest – 8,848m above sea leavel
• Mariana Trench in pacific 11,022m deep
• Seven major continents
  1. ASIA – largest – 1/3^rd – separated from Europe by Ural Mountain – tropic of cancer passes through it
  2. EUROPE – Arctic Circle passes through it.
  3. AFRICA – 2^nd largest – equator runs through the middle of the continent – the only continent with TOCap, TOCan, Equator pass – world's largest hot desert Sahara desert – world's longest river Nile – all sides bound by seas and oceans
  4. NORTH AMERICA - 3rd largest – linked to south America through a narrow strip of land - panama isthmus
  5. SOUTH AMERICA – world's longest mountain range Andes – world's largest river Amazon
  6. AUSTRALIA – smallest continent – island continent – all sides water

Oceans

6 MAJOR LANDFORMS OF THE EARTH

A hill is a land surface that rises higher than the surrounding area.
Generally, a steep hill with an elevation of more than 600 metres is termed as a mountain

landforms are a result of two processes

• the internal process leads to the upliftment and sinking of the earth's surface
• external process -the continuous wearing down and rebuilding of the land surface.

erosion

• wearing away of the earth's surface is called erosion. The surface is being lowered by the process of erosion and rebuilt by the process of deposition. two processes are carried out by running water, ice and wind

In some mountains, there are permanently frozen rivers of ice. They are called glaciers.

Few people live in the mountain areas. Since the slopes are steep, less land is available for farming

Mountains may be arranged in a line known as range. Many mountain systems consist of a series of parallel ranges extending over hundreds of kilometres. The Himalayas, the Alps and the Andes are mountain ranges of Asia, Europe and South America

There are three types of mountains- Fold
Mountains, Block Mountains and the Volcanic
Mountains. The Himalayan Mountains and the Alps
are young fold mountains with rugged relief and high
conical peaks. The Aravali range in India is one of the
oldest fold mountain systems in the world. The range
has considerably worn down due to the processes of
erosion. The Appalachians in North America and the
Ural mountains in Russia (Figure 5.1) have rounded
features and low elevation. They are very old fold
mountains

Block Mountains are
created when large areas are
broken and displaced
vertically. The uplifted blocks
are termed as horsts and the
lowered blocks are called
graben.

blocks are called
graben. The Rhine valley
and the Vosges mountain in
Europe

landforms.
Volcanic mountains are
formed due to volcanic
activity. Mt.Kilimanjaro in Africa and Mt.Fujiyama
in Japan

mountains are a
storehouse of water. Many rivers have their source in
the glaciers in the mountains. Reservoirs are made
and the water is harnessed for the use of people. Water
from the mountains is also used for irrigation and
generation of hydro-electricity. The river valleys and
terraces are ideal for cultivation of crops. Mountains
have a rich variety of flora and fauna. The forests
provide fuel, fodder, shelter gum, raisins

l sports like paragliding, hang gliding,
river rafting and skiing

plateau

the plateau is an elevated flat land. It is
a flat-topped table land standing
above the surrounding area

Deccan plateau
in India is one of the oldest plateaus.
The East African Plateau in Kenya,
Tanzania and Uganda and the
Western plateau of Australia

e Tibet plateau (Figure 5.1, p.31) is the
highest plateau in the world with a height of 4,000 to
6,000 metres above the mean sea level

Plateaus are very useful because they are rich in
mineral deposits. As a result, many of the mining areas
in the world are located in the plateau areas

African plateau is famous for gold and diamond mining. In India huge reserves of
iron, coal and manganese are found in the Chhotanagpur plateau

plateau areas, there may be several waterfalls as the river falls from a
great height. In India, the Hundru falls in the Chhotanagpur plateau on the river
Subarnarekha and the Jog falls in Karnataka. e lava plateaus are rich in black soil that are fertile and good for cultivation.

Plains

• plains are formed by rivers and their tributaries.
• Plains are large stretches of flat land. They are, generally, not more than 200m above msl
• The rivers flow down the slopes of mountains and erode them, deposit their load consisting of stones, sand and silt along with their courses and in their valleys and plains are formed.
• They are very fertile
• Construction of transport network is easy
• Thus, these plains are very thickly-populated regions of the world.
• largest plains made by the rivers are found in Asia and North America.
• For example - in Asia, these plains are formed by the Ganga and the Brahmaputra in India and the Yangtze in China
• Indo-Gangetic plains are the most densely populated regions of the country

7 OUR COUNTRY – INDIA

The peninsula is a piece of land that is surrounded by water on three sides

• north-south extent - 3,200 km
• east-west - 2,900 km

Large countries which stretch extensively from east to west do not have a single Standard Time
for the whole country. The USA and Canada have seven and six-time zones respectively

Seven countries that share land boundaries with India

Our island neighbours—Sri Lanka and the Maldives.

Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Palk Strait.

Alluvial deposits: These are very fine soils, brought by rivers and deposited in the river basins.
Tributary: A river or stream which contributes its water to the main river by discharging it into the main river from either side

Ganga and the Brahmaputra form the world's largest delta, the Sundarbans delta. The delta is triangular in shape. It is an area of land formed at the mouth of the river.

The Himalayan mountains are divided into three main parallel ranges.

1. The northernmost is the Great Himalaya or Himadri. The world's highest peaks are located in this range.
2. Middle Himalaya or Himachal lies to the south of Himadri. Many popular hill stations are situated here.
3. The Shiwalik is the southernmost range.

Corals are skeletons of tiny marine animals called Polyps. When the living polyps die, their skeletons are left. Other polyps grow on top of the hard skeleton which grows higher and higher, thus forming the coral islands

The western coastal plains are very narrow. The eastern Coastal plains are much broader.

There are a number of east-flowing rivers. The rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri drain into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers have formed fertile deltas at their mouth. The Sunderban Delta is formed where the Ganga and Brahmaputra flow into the Bay of Bengal.

Two groups of islands also form part of India. Lakshadweep Islands are located in the Arabian Sea.
These are coral islands located off the coast of Kerala. and The Andaman and the Nicobar Islands

8 INDIA : CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE

4 major seasons recognised in India

• Winter - December to February - Cold Weather Season
• Summer - March to May - Hot Weather Season
• Rainy - June to September - Southwest Monsoon Season
• Autumn - October and November - Season of Retreating Monsoon

Loo

• Hot and dry winds
• It blows during the day
• In summer
• When Temperature becomes very high

Rainy Season / Southwest Monsoon

• winds blow from Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal towards the land
• They carry moisture with them.
• When these winds strike the mountain barriers, rainfall occurs

Autumn Season / Retreating Monsoon

• Winds move back from the mainland to the Bay of Bengal.
• Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh receive rainfall

The climate of a place is affected by its

• location,
• altitude,
• distance from the sea,
• relief

hot region - Jaisalmer and Bikaner in the desert of Rajasthan
cold region - Drass and Kargil in Jammu and Kashmir

Forests provide us with

• timber for furniture,
• fuel wood,
• fodder,
• medicinal plants and herbs,
• lac,
• honey,
• gum

Van Mahotsav Project Tiger and Project Elephant

Wildlife in India

• Asiatic lions - Gir forest in Gujarat
• Elephants and one-horned rhinoceroses in the forests of Assam.
• Elephants are also found in Kerala and Karnataka.
• Camels and wild asses are found in the Great Indian desert and the Rann of Kuchchh respectively.
• Wild goats, snow leopards, bears, etc. are found in the Himalayan region

common birds are parrots, pigeons, mynah, geese, bulbul and ducks

Migratory Birds - Pintail Duck, Curlews, Flamingo, Osprey and Little Stint migrate
to our country in the winter season every year. Smallest migratory bird Little Stint Weighing
as low as 15 gram, from Arctic region travel over 8000 km to reach India.